In iron mail and brass helmets on their heads.
The first book of Maccabees 6:35
Warriors of Eurasia. Like the Western European knights, the military art of the Mamluks was the art of horsemen, as its very name suggests: furusiyya, from the Arabic word for "phar" - horse. In Italian, a horse is "caval" - hence the cavalry and cavaliers, in French - "cheval", and hence - "chevalier", in Spanish - "cabal", and hence - "caballero"! And in Germany the word "ritter" literally meant a rider. That is, this terminological similarity only emphasizes the similar nature of the conduct of military operations by the Egyptian Mamluks and the knights of Western Europe. There were some differences, though. If the knights never fired from a bow while on horseback, then for the Mamluks this was the typical way of fighting. And the Mamluks were distinguished from the knights by the high discipline that was instilled in them from the very beginning of their training. The chivalrous youth of Europe was brought up differently and the knights always had big problems with discipline!
People developed in the most comprehensive way
Furusiyu included archery, fencing, exercises with a spear and other weapons, wrestling, and horseback riding. It was also necessary to know the basics of horse anatomy and the pedigrees of the most thoroughbred horses. In addition to archery from a horse (which actually differed from the knights of the West), the Mamluks were taught how to use a crossbow, both on horseback and on foot. Hunting with birds of prey and … again with a bow and crossbow was a popular means of mastering the art of equestrianism. And every Mamluk had to be able to swim and play backgammon and chess!
Armament to the soldiers to match
We will still have material within the framework of the declared topic concerning the warriors of the Middle East, so there is no point in talking about the armament of the Mamluks before 1350, there will be more about it. But about the weapons of the Mamluk warriors of the 15th century, it should be said that it was formed on the basis of the experience of previous centuries and consisted of a combat caftan (havtan) lined with cotton wool, sewn both in the form of a robe and in the form of a short shirt. He was put on chain mail and lamellar armor - javshan, something like a plate corset. The head of a simple warrior was well protected by an ordinary turban, but the rich Mamluks undoubtedly preferred to him metal helmets (usually of the turban type) with nose pads and chain mail aventails. In the same 15th century, separate armor was gradually replaced by chain-plate armor with an axial cut and fasteners on the chest. The chain mail in this armor, which received the name yushman in Russia, on the chest and on the back was complemented by rows of rectangular plates, very convenient for decorating them with engraving and inlay. Hands covered tubular bracers, legs up to the knees - plate or chain mail legguards with metal knee "cups" and triangular chain mail slips hanging from them down to the shin.
It is believed that this is one of two helmets (the second is in the Vienna Armory), made around 1560 for the Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent (ruled 1520–66). Both helmets were supposedly made in one of the imperial workshops, possibly in Istanbul. Although this helmet is undoubtedly a combat helmet, judging by its fine finishes and decorations, it could have been created as part of ceremonial armor and as a symbol of its wearer's high rank. Height 27.8 cm; weight 2580 (Metropolitan Museum, New York)
The main means of defeating the enemy, unlike the knights of Europe, the Mamluks had a bow, not a spear. But they had spears (usually with bamboo shafts), straight swords, oriental sabers and maces; as well as crossbows used in sieges and during battles at sea. On a campaign, Mamluk warriors usually had only one horse, but one or a pair of camels for transporting equipment. Uniform uniforms were missing, but many wore red or yellow clothing. Most of the Mamluk banners were also yellow, since the banners of the former Ayyubid dynasty were of the same color. The insignia of the military leaders were belts richly decorated with precious stones, set in gold and silver. However, not only belts were decorated, but also armor and weapons. Turban helmets were blued, covered with gilding and silvering, texts in Arabic were applied on them by the method of engraving and inlay (notches): praise to Allah, suras from the Koran, as well as wishes of victory to their master. The same inscriptions were made on large plates of yushmans, and there were masters who even managed to put the name of Allah and his prophet Muhammad on the rings of the baydan (chain mail made of wide flattened rings)!
Tactics for the appropriate combatants
Since the Mamluks were a cavalry army, the main thing in their tactics was maneuvering. With a false retreat, they tried to upset the enemy's ranks and unexpectedly strike at him from the flank. But they also had infantry. More disciplined and trained than European. Although the Mamluks rarely used infantry in battle in the field, they usually rely on cavalry in this case. The main task before the battle was to choose the most convenient location, with the expectation that there was a hill or hills behind in order to make it difficult for the enemy to attack from the rear. The formation of the troops was traditional: the center and two flank detachments. The Mamluks tried to encircle the small enemy. But the superior forces of the generals of the Mamluks tried first of all to wear them out with frequent attacks, and then to wedge themselves in with a mass of horsemen where they showed weakness. The Mamluk cavalry could, standing on the spot, bombard the enemy with a hail of arrows, and then turn to feigned flight, hoping that the pursuers on the wounded horses would be put aside during the jump, and thus the number of the enemy army would be reduced even before hand-to-hand combat. There were special treatises on how to shoot and where to aim. It was pointed out, for example, that if the enemy is nearby, then first it is necessary to remove the sword from its scabbard and hang it on your wrist. It was possible to shoot from a bow at it only after that, and having released all the arrows, immediately attack the enemy demoralized by such shelling!
Serve for the land, as elsewhere
The Mamluk army consisted of three formations, not counting recruits and auxiliary units. These are the personal guard of the Sultan, the troops of the emirs and the free mercenaries of the Hulk. The emir's Mamluks were less prepared than the Sultan's, since they did not study in elite schools. After the death of the emir, they usually went over to the detachments of other emirs or became warriors of the Hulk. For service, the Mamluk officers received ikta - land plots with peasants. However, the Sultan could welcome them as a reward and "profitable places". For example, it could be … a bridge that was charged to cross, a mill, or a city market. They were exempted from paying taxes, but in case of war they had to bring a detachment of armed people to the Sultan. Iktas were issued in conditional possession and could not be inherited by descendants. Under the Ayyubids, the detachments of free citizens of the Hulk were also quite prestigious, although gradually their high status fell sharply, and their combat effectiveness decreased. Interestingly, by the XIV century, anyone could enroll in the Hulk detachments, as in the modern Foreign Legion, but this required money, since the person who entered paid the commander a monetary contribution.
About numbers and money …
Already in the second half of the XIII century, thanks to the reforms of Sultan Baybars, the Egyptian army has grown in numbers. It reportedly included up to 40,000 warriors, of whom 4,000 were Mamluks. At the beginning of the XIV century, the number of the Mamluk army already reached 24,000 horsemen, of which 12,400 belonged to the units of the emirs. The province housed 13,000 Mamluks and another 9,000 Hulk. Emirs-centurions had under their command detachments of 1,000 soldiers and their own bodyguard detachment of 100 soldiers. Then came the emirs, who commanded a hundred soldiers, and the emirs-foremen.
Wanting to bolster the loyalty of his troops, Baybars significantly increased the salaries of his Mamluks. In addition to monthly payments, they were paid once every six months or a year to buy clothes and equipment, they were paid daily for their meat ration, and once every two weeks they were given money to feed the horse. In addition to income from the plots granted, the Sultan gave gifts to the Mamluk officers before the campaign, and every new Sultan gave the same gifts when he ascended the throne. At the beginning of the 15th century, the salary of a simple soldier was three dinars a month, and the salary of an officer was seven dinars. Some emirs of a hundred horsemen received income from ikt in the amount of 200,000 dinars, emirs of forty horsemen - up to 30,000 dinars, and amirs of a dozen - about 7,000 dinars.
References:
1. Esbridge, T. Crusades. Wars of the Middle Ages for the Holy Land. M.: Tsentrpoligraf, 2016.
2. Christie, N. Muslims and Crusaders: Christianity's Wars in the Middle East, 1095-1382, from the Islamic Sources. New York: Routledge, 2014.
3. Rabie, H. The training of the Mamluk Faris / War, Technology and Society in the Middle East. Ed. V. J. Parry, M. E. Yapp. London, 1975.
4. Nicolle, D. Mamluk 'Askary' 1250-1517. UK. Oxford: Osprey Publishing (Warrior # 173), 2014.
