If you look at the map of the Western Front of World War I, you can easily come to the conclusion that even in 1918 the situation in Germany was not at all bad.
The fighting at that time was conducted in France, and even on the eve of the surrender, German troops controlled almost all of Belgium and still occupied a small part of French lands. In addition, on March 3, 1918, a peace treaty was signed between the German Empire and Soviet Russia in Brest. The troops that were formerly on the Eastern Front, the German command could now use in the Western. However, many in Germany already understood that the country was exhausted and the situation was rapidly changing for the worse. The position of the allies of the Second Reich, on whose support Germany was forced to spend part of her already meager resources, was no better. Germany's top leaders also believed that the war should be ended, and the sooner the better. However, they did not even want to hear about any concessions and compromises in the peace negotiations. It was decided to try to end the war by inflicting a military defeat on the Entente forces in France.
The last offensive operations of the German army
From March to July 1918, the German army conducted five offensive operations. At the beginning of the first four, German troops achieved certain tactical successes. But each time they stopped because of the growing resistance of the enemy. The last, "July" offensive lasted only three days. And then the Entente troops themselves struck a blow, which ended in the defeat of 8 German divisions. During the battles, then one of the most successful tank attacks of the First World War was carried out.
As a result, the German troops were defeated at Amiens. And on August 8, 1918, Ludendorff in his memoirs called the "black day" of the German army. He later wrote:
“August 8 revealed that we had lost our ability to fight and took away from me the hope of finding a strategic outlet that would help change the situation in our favor again. On the contrary, I have come to believe that from now on the activities of the High Command are devoid of a solid foundation. Thus, the conduct of the war took on, as I put it then, the character of an irresponsible gambling game."
On the eve of surrender
This failure clearly demonstrated that the balance of power is irreversibly changing in favor of the Entente countries. Then Wilhelm II also thought about peace, who on that fateful day, August 8, said:
“We can't stand it anymore. The war must be ended."
The people in the rear were already starving. And the commanders of the forward units reported on the depressive mood in the units entrusted to them. And in the French ports, meanwhile, from June 1918, American troops had already landed. They will arrive at the front only in October, but no one doubted that they would be there, radically changing the balance of forces. In the meantime, the French and British troops seized the initiative, their actions were later called the "Hundred Day Offensive".
On August 13, at the headquarters of the German High Command in Spa, the Crown Council of the II Reich was held, which was chaired by Kaiser Wilhelm II himself. As a result, it was decided to start peace negotiations with the Entente states. Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands was supposed to act as a mediator.
On August 14, the Austro-Hungarian Emperor Karl arrived at Spa, accompanied by Foreign Minister Burian and Chief of the General Staff Arts von Straussenburg. The Austrians supported the decision of the German leadership. However, due to opposition from Hindenburg, peace negotiations did not begin at that time. The field marshal still hoped for a favorable development of events and believed that negotiations should not begin immediately after defeat.
But on September 28, 1918, the Bulgarian army surrendered. Austria-Hungary found itself in the most desperate situation, and it was no longer possible to drag out the negotiations.
On October 1, Ludendorff reports in a telegram:
“Today the troops are holding, what will happen tomorrow, it is impossible to foresee … The front can be broken at any moment, and then our proposal will arrive at the most unfavorable time … Our proposal must be immediately transferred from Bern to Washington. The army cannot wait forty-eight hours."
The next day, October 2, Hindenburg also telegraphed to Berlin and also claims that the army will not be able to hold out more than forty-eight hours. Even yesterday, the arrogant and self-confident German generals seemed to be in a state of shock and panic. Moreover, they have already made a decision to betray the "beloved Kaiser." Believing that "democratic Germany" has a better chance of success in the upcoming negotiations, they hinted that they would agree to a change in the internal political regime.
On September 30, the Kaiser signed a decree on the resignation of the Imperial Chancellor von Harting. Maximilian Baden, a member of the Hohenzollern dynasty, who had a reputation as a liberal, was appointed new chancellor on October 3. Wilhelm instructed him to attract people to the government, "". The new government on October 4, 1918 asked US President Woodrow Wilson to mediate in the peace negotiations. The principled decision to surrender had already been made; it was only about more or less worthy conditions.
On October 23, the German government officially requested an armistice from the Entente countries. The next day, a note from the US President was received, in which Wilson hinted at the desirability of removing William II and others from power.
German ambassadors in neutral countries at the same time reported that the abdication of the emperor was the only way to avoid complete surrender.
German revanchists later created the legend of "stabbing in the back" and betrayal of the "undefeated" German army. The leaders of the Social Democratic faction of parliament, and citizens who rebelled against the policy of Wilhelm II, and even some of the highest leaders of Germany were accused of this. However, the documents available to historians make it possible to assert that the final decision to surrender by the German authorities was made in a relatively calm period, when there was still no reason to talk about a military catastrophe and no one thought about the possibility of a revolution in this country. At the same time, the closest circle of William II positively decided for themselves the question of the possibility of his abdication from the throne. Practical steps in this direction were also taken before the start of the revolutionary uprisings in November 1918. Negotiations with representatives of the Entente went on regardless of the anti-government protests that had begun. The Compiegne armistice actually saved Germany from occupation by the Entente forces (plans for a decisive and catastrophic Allied offensive for Germany had already been developed). The expediency and inevitability of signing this act was obvious to everyone. The government of the country in November 1918 was not lost against the backdrop of the collapse of the monarchy, the continuity of power was preserved. And the most acute period of confrontation, when the scales of history really wavered at some point (the so-called "January uprising of the Spartacists" and the proclamation of the Bavarian, Saar, Bremen Soviet republics), was still ahead.
Let's go back to October 1918, when the surrender negotiations had actually begun. To begin with, the Germans decided to "sacrifice" Ludendorff, who was dismissed on October 26. This did not satisfy the Allies.
Subsequent events took on the character of a tragicomedy. According to the official version, Chancellor Maximilian Badensky decided to get a good night's sleep and took a large dose of the appropriate drugs. He slept for 36 hours. And when he came to his senses and was able to do business, he learned that Austria-Hungary (September 30) and the Ottoman Empire (October 3) had already left the war. What was it? Illness, binge or faking to avoid responsibility? I involuntarily recall the lines of a parody poem that was once published in the newspaper Komsomolskaya Pravda:
“You explain to me plainly, What happened these days
If I'm oversleeping again
I hurt them all, whoever."
But, unlike Yeltsin, Maximilian Badensky could no longer “cut” anyone, and he didn’t want to. Germany's position was hopeless.
The beginning of the German revolution and the fall of the monarchy
In Germany, there were still forces wishing to preserve the monarchy and Kaiser Wilhelm at the head of the state. Among them were the top leaders of the German fleet, who believed that the successful actions of the German ships would change both the military-political situation and the mood in society.
On October 28, 1918, German warships stationed in Kiel were ordered to go to sea and attack the British fleet. However, the sailors refused to obey and, in order to prevent the implementation of this adventurous operation, on October 29 they drowned out the furnaces.
Mass arrests led to an open uprising and the beginning of the German Revolution.
On November 2, 1918, an anti-government demonstration took place in Kiel, the number of participants (sailors and townspeople) is estimated at 15-20 thousand people. Even then, the first shots were fired.
On November 4, the crews of all ships, as well as the soldiers of the Kiel garrison, joined the uprising. The rebels captured Kiel and freed the arrested sailors. A Soviet of Soldiers 'Deputies was created in the city, and on November 5, a Soviet of Workers' Deputies was established. The rebels demanded the conclusion of peace and the abdication of the emperor. On this day, the embassy of Soviet Russia was sent from Germany.
On November 6, uprisings broke out in Hamburg, Bremen and Lubeck. Then unrest spread to Dresden, Leipzig, Chemnitz, Frankfurt, Hanover and some other cities.
Curious is the testimony of Baroness Knorring, who recalled that, storming one of the government buildings, the insurgent Germans fled exclusively along the paths of the park:
"None of the revolutionaries stepped on the lawn."
Karl Radek, by the way, is credited with the phrase:
"There will be no revolution in Germany, because before taking stations, the insurgents will first go to buy platform tickets."
But Radek himself took part in the so-called "January Spartak Uprising of 1919" in Berlin. It will be discussed a little later.
On November 7, the King of Bavaria Ludwig III of the Wittelsbach dynasty was deposed in Munich and a republic was proclaimed.
On this day, the deputies of the Social Democratic faction of parliament demanded the abdication of William II. But there was no talk of establishing a republic yet: the leader of the Social Democrats Friedrich Ebert promised that "". The emperor, who was in Spa, announced that he would come to Germany with troops and "".
On November 8, the uprising began in Berlin. Hindenburg disclaimed responsibility for the conduct of the army, and General Groener declared to the emperor:
"The army is united and will return to its homeland in order under the leadership of its leaders and commanders, but not under the leadership of Your Majesty."
In this situation, Wilhelm decided to renounce the title of German emperor, but said that he would remain King of Prussia and commander-in-chief. However, the German government no longer obeyed him. On November 9, Chancellor Maximilian Badensky went for outright forgery, announcing the abdication of both the Kaiser and the Crown Prince. Learning about this, Wilhelm fled to Holland on November 10. He signed an official act of abdication from both thrones on November 28.
At the Versailles Peace Congress, Wilhelm II was officially recognized as a war criminal, but Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands refused to extradite him for trial. The former Kaiser did not admit his mistakes and did not consider himself guilty either in unleashing the war or in defeat, blaming other persons for this. Later, the government of the Weimar Republic sent him 23 wagons of furniture, 27 containers with various things, a car and a boat to Holland. In 1926, by the decision of the Prussian Landtag, dozens of palaces, castles, villas and land plots, as well as a palace on the island of Corfu, a farm in Namibia and 15 million marks in cash were returned to the former Kaiser and King (Prussia), which made him one of the richest people Earth. In exile, he married again, was in correspondence with Hindenburg, and received Goering. After the occupation of the Netherlands by Germany, Wilhelm's property in both Holland and Germany was nationalized (the heirs are now trying to get him back). Doorn Castle, where he lived, was left at the disposal of the former Kaiser. Wilhelm died on June 4, 1941, by order of Hitler he was buried in this castle with military honors.
Let's go back to the events that took place in Germany in November 1918.
Maximilian Badensky tried to transfer power to Friedrich Ebert, who, as we remember, promised to preserve the Hohenzollern dynasty. However, Philip Scheidemann, another Social Democrat who was at that time in the post of Secretary of State, announced his intention to create the German Republic. And on November 10, there were already two republics in Germany. The first, socialist, was proclaimed by the Berlin Council of Workers 'and Soldiers' Deputies. And the Council of People's Representatives declared Germany a "democratic" republic, but promised "".
Compiegne Armistice and Treaty of Versailles
Meanwhile, on November 11, 1918, in the Compiegne forest, in the carriage of Field Marshal Foch, a truce was finally signed, which Germany badly needed.
According to its terms, Germany withdrew its troops from the territory of France, Belgium and left the left bank of the Rhine. The German army disarmed: 5 thousand guns, 25 thousand machine guns, all warships and submarines, aircraft, as well as many locomotives and wagons were transferred to the allies. After the signing of this treaty, the German troops, led by Hindenburg and Groener, left for German territory, where the army disintegrated.
On the other hand, Germany escaped occupation and total defeat.
The final terms of the German surrender were set forth in the famous Treaty of Versailles, signed on June 28, 1919.
As a result, the "German question" was resolved by the Allies in half. On the one hand, the conditions of surrender and huge reparations imposed on this country led to the impoverishment of the population and revanchist sentiments, on the wave of which Adolf Hitler came to power. On the other hand, Germany's power was not crushed. "", - they said then.
Numerous "loopholes" of the Versailles Treaty allowed the defeated to quickly increase industrial production and even train another one on the basis of a personnel army of one hundred thousand - the "Black Reichswehr", which became the basis of the Wehrmacht.
The reasons for this condescension were, on the one hand, Britain's fear of a possible strengthening of France, and on the other, the desire of the allies to use Germany to fight the Soviet Union. The very existence of the USSR caused the deepest concern among the leaders of all Western countries. It was the October Revolution that forced them to undertake social reforms that significantly improved the position of local workers and peasants. As you can imagine, representatives of the upper strata of society were very reluctant to share their wealth with the "plebs". However, politicians managed to convince them that it is better to sacrifice part of the property than to lose everything. The example of Russian aristocrats who fell into insignificance and almost mendicant was very convincing.
The January uprising of the Spartacists
The Social Democratic Party of Germany was split. The bulk of the Social Democrats supported the government. Of the others, the Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany (NSDPD) was formed in 1917. During the events of November 1918, the SPD and the NSDP entered into an alliance that first cracked in December, when the moderate Social Democrats abandoned the "Soviet" system of government. In mid-December, there were even armed clashes in Berlin. Finally, at the end of December 1918 - early January 1919. the left-wing Marxist group "Spartak" ("Union of Spartacus"), which was part of the NSDPD, announced the creation of the Communist Party of Germany. Its most famous leaders at the time were Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg.
On January 6, 1919, up to 150 thousand people took to the streets of Berlin. The reason was the dismissal from the post of the head of the Berlin police of the popular among the people Emil Eichhorn. The protesters demanded the resignation "" - so they called the already familiar Ebert and Scheidemann, who actually headed the new republic. This performance was not included in the plans of the communists, but they nevertheless decided to take part in these actions and even try to lead them. Few people have heard about the Communist Party of Germany, and therefore these events went down in history under the name of the "January Spartak Uprising". Among others, the future President of the GDR Wilhelm Peak fought for Spartak. The story, by the way, is rather "muddy": some later accused him of betrayal. Street fighting continued until January 12.
Berlin was supported by residents of other cities, including Dresden, Leipzig, Munich, Nuremberg, Stuttgart, and some others. Moreover, not only rallies and demonstrations were noted, but also street battles. In Leipzig, for example, it was possible to stop echelons with troops heading for Berlin. Here, the pilot Büchner, who fought on the side of the "whites", was killed, who during World War I shot down more than 40 enemy planes.
The Berlin uprising was brutally suppressed by army units and "volunteer detachments" (Freikors), which were brought to Berlin by the right-wing Social Democrat Gustav Noske.
In street battles, Noske's subordinates used machine guns, artillery pieces, armored vehicles and even tanks). Noske himself said then:
"Some of us must finally take on the role of the bloody dog, I'm not afraid of responsibility."
Alexey Surkov wrote about him in one of his poems:
“Noske met us, New Thiers.
And coughed up in my face
Lead of the rentier republic, Murderers and scoundrels."
People with a “pioneer childhood” probably remember the song:
“We walked to the roar of the cannonade, We looked death in the face
The detachments were moving forward, Spartacus are brave fighters."
I personally did not know then that it was about street fighting in Berlin, which took place at the beginning of 1919.
Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg were shot on January 15 (without trial, of course). The famous Trotskyist Isaac Deutscher later said that with their death
"Kaiser's Germany celebrated its last triumph and Nazi Germany celebrated its first."
Paul Levy became the leader of the German Communist Party.
Soviet republics of Germany
On November 10, 1918, the Alsatian Soviet Republic was formed, which was liquidated by the French authorities after its annexation by France (November 22, 1918).
On January 10, 1919, while the street fighting in Berlin was still going on, the Soviet republic was proclaimed in Bremen.
But on February 4, this city was captured by pro-government troops.
Finally, in early April 1919, a Soviet republic appeared in Bavaria.
By May 5 of the same year, it was defeated by the Reichswehr and Freikor detachments operating under the command of the aforementioned G. Noske. The behavior of the Freikorites then angered even the foreign diplomats who were in Munich, who in their messages called their actions towards the civilian population "".
The emergence of the Weimar Republic
As a result, moderate Social Democrats came to power in Germany, Friedrich Ebert became president, and Philip Scheidemann became the head of government. On August 11, 1919, a new constitution was adopted, which marked the beginning of the so-called Weimar Republic, which fell ingloriously in 1933.
