The risk of being attacked by weapons of mass destruction (chemical, biological, radiological or nuclear) is of concern to commanders conducting any modern military operation. This situation can be encountered even if such weapons are banned by international treaties, when their use may seem unlikely.
This concern has serious grounds, since if the troops are not prepared and equipped properly, this can lead to large losses and seriously disrupt the course of the operation. Of all types of weapons of mass destruction (WMD), chemical weapons (CW) have received notoriety in recent years due to their open use in several conflicts, including the conflict in Syria. In the Iran-Iraq war between 1980 and 1988, Iraq also used chemical weapons, which became a flagrant crime against humanity, since the Iranians attacked were not ready for this and were not equipped with special chemical protection. In general, attacks using chemical weapons, as a rule, are not tactical in nature, their goal is to sow fear and horror in the ranks of the enemy. However, if we analyze the history of the use of CW, we can conclude that it rarely had a decisive combat value, especially when used against trained modern troops.
Even taking into account the not-so-decisive impact of CW, the adoption of measures necessary to prepare for protection against chemical warfare agents or biological warfare agents has a negative impact on the ability of soldiers to perform their duties. In the event of a CW attack, each soldier must respond immediately by donning the necessary protective equipment to protect against its effects. And for this he is given a few seconds. This means that he must carry a gas mask and a special chemical protection suit with him at all times. This suit is specially designed to protect against toxic substances and is often worn over normal combat gear. It can be bulky, uncomfortable, and cause profuse sweating. Many of these protective suits are airtight, do not breathe, preventing the heat generated by the wearer from escaping even at moderate temperatures, which can lead to overheating of the body. In conditions of high ambient temperatures, the likelihood of it increases even without physical exertion. The high physical activity of soldiers in combat can cause heatstroke, as well as dehydration and other serious problems. Even the simplest task in such a suit becomes difficult, and stamina quickly drops. The Defense Analytics Institute report for the US Department of Defense, "The Impact of Wearing a Protective Kit on Human Performance," states that "even without thermal exposure, the ability of combat and support personnel to perform tasks is significantly reduced." This was demonstrated in military exercises, during which estimated casualties more than doubled.
Poisonous substances are divided into four major physiological classes; for the OM of each class with different properties, its own set of protection measures is required. OVs of nerve-paralytic action act on the nervous system quickly, but also quickly decompose. The skin blistering agents destroy cellular tissue upon contact and can retain their properties for a long time. A suffocating agent burns the bronchi and lungs during inhalation. Generally toxic agents interfere with the ability of the blood to carry oxygen. They act quickly, but also dissipate quickly. Poisonous substances can be gaseous, liquid or powder, the latter two forms can be very persistent.
Stress-free protection
For many years, personal chemical protection of personnel was provided by wearing outer protective clothing made of impermeable materials and a gas mask or respirator. The gas mask used special filters to absorb chemicals, while the outer protective clothing resembled a raincoat or raincoat, protecting the skin from contact with OM. Clothing of this type is popular today, including in the West, where it belongs to Level A protective kits. For example, the Tychem HazMat suit developed by Dupont is widely used by both military and civilian first responders. These kits are completely sealed and are therefore most often worn for limited periods due to the potential for overheating and fatigue of the wearer. Lightweight impervious jackets, pants and boot covers or simply hooded capes are also used to provide short-term protection, such as when crossing an infected area. They are mostly disposable and are made from materials such as Dupont's Tyvek or PVC-based materials.
The US military at one time standardized the graphite-lined protective kit that was used in the first Gulf War. Although it was more suitable for soldiers than earlier models, it was nevertheless bulky, did not breathe, had reduced performance when wet, and graphite stained the wearer's clothes and exposed parts of the body black. After Operation Desert Storm, this kit received many negative reviews, in connection with which it became clear that the American military needed alternative solutions that could have improved characteristics from a physiological point of view. However, the coalition forces of some countries already had the experience of wearing similar protective kits in desert areas, in which the above problems were successfully solved. For example, the French wore a suit manufactured by Paul Boye, which had no additional physiological effect, although it also had a graphite lining, but at the same time looked like a conventional combat gear.
Another filtration technology is based on graphite balls glued to the lining of a protective suit. This technology, proposed by the German company Bliicher as Saratoga, is used in the Joint Service Lightweight Integrated Suit Technology (JSLIST), adopted for supply by the US military. In turn, UK company Haven Technologies has teamed up with OPEC CBRN to offer Kestrel and Phoenix kits.
An OPEC spokesman said the Kestrel "is a medium-weight suit, 30 percent lighter and ideal for hot climates." Kestrel was selected in 2016 for the Australian Armed Forces.
Research and development
In the United States, several research and development programs are being implemented, the purpose of which is to create systems of personal protection against OS, which have a lower physiological burden on the soldier. One of the approaches is to make standard combat equipment resistant to OV, as a result of which there is no need for special suits, which must be constantly carried and worn on a regular basis. The elimination of an extra layer of clothing also helps to reduce heat stress and improve wearing comfort.
WL Gore has developed impervious and selectively permeable protective fabrics including Chempak. A company spokesman explained that “This is a very lightweight outerwear for short-term use. Selectively permeable protective fabrics reduce perspiration by allowing heat to pass outside, but at the same time prevent the penetration of OM. This contributes to a slight decrease in the body temperature of the wearer of the suit. Chempak is often used to make underwear over which ordinary combat gear is worn. This underwear can be worn longer, it is less bulky and, as a result, more comfortable.
Nanotechnology is also being explored as a possible solution, which will make it possible to obtain lighter and more breathable textiles for protection from OM. Fabrics coated with nanofibers have good prospects, since after impregnation with an absorbent they remain impermeable to liquid and aerosol substances and at the same time provide heat dissipation and do not interfere with the process of perspiration. It is also believed that this protective uniform will be more durable and provide the wearer with better comfort.
It should be admitted that a lot of attention is rightly paid to the development of suits with the best characteristics of protection against OV. However, numerous field and laboratory studies confirm that the greatest burden on a soldier is wearing a gas mask. This is especially true in the case of high physical activity. In this regard, different levels of personal protection have been defined, often bearing the abbreviation MOPP (Mission Oriented Protective Postures - the procedure for using personal protective equipment, depending on the nature of the task). These range from MOPP level 0, when only normal combat gear and uniforms are worn, to MOPP level 4, which requires wearing a full protective gear, from shoes and gloves to a hood and a gas mask. Other MOPP levels define fewer kit items, but must be taken with you and ready for immediate use. In general, the decision on the level of the MORR is made by the command based on the assessment of the perceived threat of the use of weapons.
Detection of toxic substances
Complicating the decision to use a lower level of MOPP (latent desire of commanders) is the fact that the presence of OM may not be obvious to the human senses, at least before it begins to have a negative effect on those who have been infected. Some agents are also deliberately created to be persistent, maintaining their effectiveness for a long time. As a result, units can easily enter the infected area without realizing it. Therefore, it is very important to continuously monitor for the presence of substances and their rapid detection. These systems need to be simple, reliable and accurate, as false alarms may require the donning of protective kits, which will reduce the effectiveness of personnel. Stationary and portable detectors are needed, since both forward units and those in the rear can become potential targets for weapons of mass destruction. Indeed, the use of OV against command posts, artillery batteries, supply bases and airfields is considered very effective in disrupting enemy actions, since these objects are easily detected and very vulnerable.
The simplest technology for detecting organic matter is indicator paper. It ranges from basic strips, such as the soldier-worn M8 and M9 strips, to the M18AZ kit used by tactical chemical reconnaissance units. A process called visual colorimetry is based on the reaction that occurs when an agent comes into contact with a substance on paper. A specific visual color change occurs depending on the presence of a specific OM. RH test strips are inexpensive, simple, and particularly effective when working with liquids and aerosols. However, they are sensitive to high humidity.
Manual systems are used for a more accurate determination. In the hand-held stationary and mobile detectors of the AP4 series of the French company Proengin, flame spectrometry technology is used to detect and identify chemical warfare agents. A company spokesman said that “they perform well in the field, despite rain or high humidity, even with the presence of extraneous chemicals. They can detect nerve agents, blisters and emetics, as well as many toxic industrial chemicals. Smiths Detection offers its HGVI device, which can simultaneously operate multiple sensors using different technologies: ion mobility detector, photoionization camera and gamma tomography camera. A compact block weighing 3.4 kg determines not only OM and toxic industrial substances, but also gamma radiation.
Airsense Analytics has developed a system that offers "improved" detection of chemicals as well as toxic industrial substances and other hazardous compounds. Its GDA-P device allows reconnaissance groups with high efficiency to determine not only OM, but also other hazardous substances. These capabilities are becoming increasingly important at a time when paramilitary and non-military structures, lacking access to chemical weapons, can use alternative solutions. It is worth mentioning another system designed for the detection of organic matter and toxic industrial substances. This is Owlstone's Next Generation Chemical Detector designed for the US Army. With a weight of less than a kilogram, it reports the detection of an agent within 10 seconds; available in manual version and in the version of installation on the machine. The instrument can be programmed to expand the range of analytes.
Size and weight are some of the most important characteristics of personal OB detectors, since they directly affect the combat effectiveness of a soldier. The handheld Joint Chemical Agent Detector (JCAD), offered by BAE Systems, can accumulate, report cases of chemical agents and store all this in its memory for later detailed analysis. The JCAD detector uses surface acoustic wave technology, which allows the detection of different OMs at the same time.
One of the preferred lines of behavior after an OV attack is to avoid infected areas by quickly identifying them. Real-time remote detection is the key to this. The Joint Chemical Stand-off Detector (JCSD) uses ultraviolet laser technology and can be mounted on a tripod or in a vehicle. Positive identification of up to 20 toxic substances and 30 toxic industrial substances is carried out in less than two minutes. Another long-range OM detector called MCAD (Mobile Chemical Agent Detector) was developed by Northrop Grumman. The company said that this system is completely passive and is capable of detecting hazardous substances at a distance of 5 km using a library of recognition algorithms. Additional substances can be programmed to supplement this library. The device can be monitored wirelessly and connected to a communications network. MCAD has proven to be highly effective both onshore and offshore.
Compact Atmospheric Sounding Interference (CATSI) is another remote sensing system developed by Defense Research and Development Canada and deployed in the Canadian Army. With the built-in Fourier spectrometer, the device is able to automatically detect and identify chemicals at a distance of up to 5 km. The RAPIDPIus device from Bruker Daltonik, mounted on a tripod, ship or car, uses circular scanning with passive infrared sensors and Fourier transform spectroscopy to detect organic matter and industrial chemicals.
Bertin Instruments' tripod-mounted Second Sight MS Gas Detector uses an uncooled multispectral infrared camera that can detect hazardous substances, including mixed clouds, at a distance of 5 km. The device scans 360 degrees every three minutes with a selectable field of view of 12, 30 or 60 degrees. The device provides a positive determination of the investigated substances in less than 10 seconds.
The attention paid today to early remote detection reflects the growing trend that the best response to the use of agents is the fastest and most accurate identification and localization of the contaminated zone. This eliminates the need for protective measures that reduce combat effectiveness, which may be acceptable for mobile forces, but is not at all suitable for those units and activities that need stationary deployment. Even the most basic response in the form of sheltering in tents and shelters in the event of a warning issued early enough can also limit the degree of exposure to OM. As a result, several companies have taken up the production of soft shelters made of woven materials that are not only resistant to OM, but can also be used as decontamination points. The British company Warwick Mills uses a patented fabric impregnated with a chemical-biological impregnation. They are also developing a self-deactivating laminate that reliably breaks down chemicals. UTS Systems offers tent shelters that are not only resistant to the effects of organic substances, but are also equipped with air locks and chemical warfare agents filtration units.
The effectiveness of attacks on military targets with the use of weapons is measured rather by the shock and confusion prevailing in the ranks of the attacked than by the loss of life. The need to wear protective kits and put up additional guards when performing even the most routine tasks leads to a sharp decrease in efficiency: the rate of fire of artillery can be reduced, aircraft sorties can last longer, the operation and maintenance of equipment becomes more complicated, if at all possible, and human and material resources are redirected to work on disinfection.
