630 years ago, on June 15, 1389, the Battle of Kosovo took place. The decisive battle between the united army of Serbs and the Ottoman army. The battle was extremely fierce - the Ottoman Sultan Murad and the Serbian prince Lazar, most of the fighting soldiers, were killed in it. Serbia will become a vassal of Turkey, and then a part of the Ottoman Empire.
The beginning of the Ottoman invasion of the Balkans
The Ottoman Turks began their expansion to the Balkans even before the fall of the Byzantine Empire. With the capture of the main centers of Byzantium, the Turks began to invade the Balkan Peninsula. In 1330 the Turks took Nicaea, in 1337 - Nicomedia. As a result, the Turks took possession of almost all the lands north of the Izmit Bay up to the Bosphorus. Izmit (as the Ottomans called Nicomedia) became the base of the nascent Ottoman fleet. The exit of the Turks to the shores of the Sea of Marmara and the Bosphorus opened the way for them to raid Thrace (a historical region in the east of the Balkans). Already in 1338, the Ottoman troops began to ravage the Thracian lands.
In 1352, the Ottomans inflicted a series of defeats on the Greek, Serbian and Bulgarian troops who fought for the Byzantine emperor. In 1354, the Ottomans effortlessly captured the city of Gallipoli (Turkish Gelibola), whose walls were destroyed by an earthquake. In 1356, the Ottoman army under the command of the son of the ruler of the Oman Beylik Orhan, Suleiman, crossed the Dardanelles. Having captured several cities, the Turks began an offensive against Adrianople (tour. Edirne). However, in 1357 Suleiman died before he could complete the campaign.
Soon the Turkish offensive in the Balkans was resumed by another son of Orhan - Murad. The Turks took Adrianople after the death of Orhan, when Murad became the ruler. This happened, according to various sources, between 1361 and 1363. The capture of Adrianople was not accompanied by a long siege. The Turks defeated the Byzantine troops on the outskirts of the city and it was left without a garrison. In 1365, Murad moved his residence here from Bursa for some time. Adrianople became a strategic springboard for the Turks for a further offensive in the Balkans.
Murad assumed the title of Sultan, and during his reign the Ottoman Beylik was finally transformed (and his son Bayazid) into a vast and militarily strong state. During the conquests, a system of distributing lands to confidants and soldiers for service arose. These awards were called timars. It became a kind of the military-fief system and the main social structure of the Ottoman state. When certain military obligations were fulfilled, the Timar holders, Timarions, could pass them on to their heirs. In the person of the Timarion nobles, the sultans received military and socio-political support.
Military conquests became the first and main source of income for the Ottoman power. Since the time of Murad, it has become a law to deduct a fifth of the military booty, including prisoners, to the treasury. Tribute from the conquered peoples, cities and war booty constantly replenished the Sultan's treasury, and the industrial labor of the population of the conquered regions gradually began to enrich the Ottoman nobility - dignitaries, generals, clergy and beys.
The system of government of the Ottoman state is taking shape. Under Murad, various affairs were discussed by the viziers (viziers) - ministers, from among them the grand vizier was distinguished, who was in charge of all matters, military and civil. The institution of the grand vizier became the central figure of the Ottoman administration for centuries. The Sultan's council was in charge of general affairs as the supreme advisory body. An administrative division appeared - the state was divided into sanjaks (translated as "banner"). They were led by the sanjak-bei, who had civil and military power. The judicial system was entirely in the hands of the ulema (theologians).
In the Ottoman state, which expanded and developed as a result of military conquests, the army was of priority importance. Under Murad, there was a cavalry based on feudal lords-timarions and infantry from peasant militias. The militias were recruited only during the war and during this period they received a salary, in peacetime they lived at the expense of cultivating their lands, having relief in the tax burden. Under Murad, a corps of janissaries began to form (from "eni cheri" - "new army"), which later became the striking force of the Turkish army and the Sultan's guard. The corps was recruited by compulsory recruitment of boys from families of conquered peoples. They were converted to Islam and trained in a special military school. The Janissaries were personally subordinate to the Sultan and received a salary from the treasury. Somewhat later, the corps of the janissaries were formed by the cavalry detachments of the Sipahi, which were also on the Sultan's salary. Also, the Ottomans were able to create a strong fleet. Everything ensured the stable military successes of the Ottoman state.
Thus, by the middle of the XIV century, the nucleus of the future great power was formed, which was destined to become one of the largest empires in the history of mankind, a powerful naval power, which in a short time subjugated many peoples of Asia and Europe. The expansion of the Ottomans was facilitated by the fact that the main opponents of the Turks - Byzantium, Serbs and Bulgarians were in decline, were at enmity with each other. The Balkan Slavic states were fragmented and the Ottomans could successfully operate on the divide and rule principle. Venice and Genoa were not concerned with the expansion of the Turks, but with their struggle for monopoly trade in the east. Rome tried to use the situation to force Constantinople, the Greek Church, to bow down under the Pope.
Conquest of the Balkans
At the turn of the 50-60s of the XIV century. The offensive of the Ottoman Turks on the Balkan Peninsula was for some time halted by the struggle for power within the Ottoman dynasty and the aggravation of relations with neighboring beylik states in Asia Minor. Therefore, in 1366, Amadeus of Savoy (the uncle of the then Byzantine emperor) recaptured the Gallipoli peninsula from the Ottomans, which made it difficult for the Turks to connect between European and Asian territories.
As soon as Murad dealt with his rivals, eliminating the brothers Ibrahim and Khalil, he was able to continue the conquest. He defeated the beys of the neighboring Turkic beyliks, who tried to challenge the dominance of the Ottomans in Asia Minor. Murad's campaign against the Karaman bey ended with the capture of Ankara. As a result, Murad's holdings increased significantly at the expense of the Ankara district.
Having established relative order in the rear and in the east, Murad again turned his troops to the west. He quickly returned the previously lost lands in Thrace. The Turks captured the large and wealthy Bulgarian city of Philippopolis (Plovdiv). The Bulgarian king Shishman became a tributary of the Turkish sultan and gave his sister to Murad's harem. The capital of the Ottoman state was moved to Adrianople-Edirne. The Turks defeated the Serbs in September 1371 at the Battle of Maritsa. The Turks were able to catch the enemy by surprise and start a massacre. Brothers Mrniavchevichi, King of Prilep Vukashin and despot Seres Ugles, who led the resistance to the Ottoman invasion, were killed. Their sons became vassals of Murad. The conquest of Macedonia begins, many Serbian, Bulgarian and Greek feudal lords become vassals of the Ottoman Sultan. From that time on, Serbian vassal detachments began to fight on the side of the Sultan in his wars in Asia Minor.
However, the offensive impulse of the Ottomans in the Balkans was again suspended by internal strife. The son of Murad, Savji in 1373 rebelled against the Sultan. He entered into an alliance with the heir to the Byzantine throne Andronicus, who challenged the power of his father - Basileus John V. Savji, while his father was in Europe, raised a mutiny in Bursa and declared himself sultan. The rebellious princes seized Constantinople and deposed John, Andronicus declared himself emperor. Murad personally led an army to suppress the rebellion. The princes were defeated, the Greeks fled to Constantinople. Savji was besieged in one of the fortresses and soon capitulated. They tortured him, gouged out his eyes, and then cut off his head. John, with the help of the Sultan's troops, returned Constantinople. Murad ordered to throw Savji's Greek accomplices from the fortress wall, and the Byzantine emperor had to blind his son under pressure from the Sultan. The power of the Byzantine emperor at this time was so weak that he was de facto a tributary of the Sultan. The daughters of the emperor joined the harems of Murad and his sons.
True, the rebellious prince did not calm down and soon, with the help of Murad and Genoa, overthrew his father again. The Sultan was enraged that John agreed to sell the island of Tenedos to Venice, which led to an alliance of Genoa with the Ottomans. As payment for help, Andronicus handed over the island of Tenedos to the Genoese, and Gallipoli to the Turks. As a result, the Ottomans strengthened their positions in the strait zone and the connection between their European and Asian territories. In 1379, the Sultan again decided to use John, freed him and put him back on the throne. As a result, Byzantium became a vassal of the Ottoman sultan. Turkish troops captured Thessaloniki and other possessions of Byzantium in the Balkans. Constantinople was awaiting capture at any moment.
Meanwhile, Murad's forces were again diverted eastward. While the Ottomans were advancing in the Balkans, Karaman's bey Alaeddin expanded his possessions in Asia Minor. Karamansky Bey began to challenge the deal on the acquisition of land by Murad from the Hamidids, who sold their possessions to the Sultan. Alaeddin himself claimed these possessions. Voadetel Karaman considered that the time was favorable for the war. Murad's army in the Balkans, and weakened by the recent civil strife. Alaeddin launched an offensive and captured a number of possessions. However, Murad demonstrated success in military construction and was able to quickly transfer troops to another front in Asia Minor. The Sultan's army in 1386 utterly defeated the troops of the Bey on the Konya Plain. The Sultan's permanent troops showed an advantage over the feudal militia of the Karaman bey. Murad laid siege to Konya, and Alaeddin asked for peace. The Ottomans expanded their holdings in Anatolia.
Turkish offensive
Murad returned with an army to the Balkans. By this time, separate Turkish troops had already invaded Epirus and Albania. The Serbs, defeated by the Turks in 1382, were forced to recognize a dependent position and signed a peace, promised to provide the Sultan with their soldiers. However, the Turks were preparing for a new offensive, and the Serbs were burdened by dependence. Soon the Ottomans invaded Bulgaria and Serbia, captured Sofia and Nis. The Bulgarian king Shishman surrendered to the mercy of the victors and became a vassal of the Sultan.
Resistance to the Ottoman invasion in the Balkans was led by the Serbian prince Lazar Hrebeljanovic and the king of Bosnia Tvrtko I Kotromanich. Lazar, under the threat of a Turkish attack, was able to unite the northern and central regions of Serbia, tried to rally large feudal lords, and end their strife. He was able to strengthen the internal position of Serbia for a while. Lazar recaptured Machva and Belgrade from the Hungarians. Tvrtko I got rid of dependence on Hungary, defeated his rivals and was in 1377 accepted the title of King of Serbs, Bosnia and the coast. In 1386 (according to other sources in the period 1387 - 1388), the Serbian army under the command of Lazar and Milos Obilic, with the support of the Bosnians, utterly defeated the Turkish troops under the command of Shahin Bey in the battle of Plochnik in southern Serbia. The Serbs were able to catch the enemy by surprise, the Ottomans, not finding the enemy, began to disperse to plunder the surroundings. As a result, the Serbian heavy and light cavalry destroyed most of the Turkish army. This victory briefly slowed the advance of the Ottomans in Serbia. In August 1388, the Bosnians under the command of the governor Vlatko Vukovic defeated the Ottomans under the command of Shahin Pasha at the Battle of Bilec, temporarily stopping the Turkish raids on Bosnia.
In June 1389, Sultan Murad, at the head of a large army (30-40 thousand soldiers), entered the Serbian lands. The Turkish army consisted of several thousand janissaries, the Sultan's horse guards, 6 thousand sipahs (heavy regular cavalry), up to 20 thousand infantry and light irregular cavalry, and several thousand warriors from vassal rulers. A feature of the Turkish army was the presence of firearms - cannons and muskets. Under the sultan were his sons Bayazid (he was already noted as an outstanding commander) and Yakub, the best Turkish commanders - Evrenos, Shahin, Ali Pasha and others. on the Kosovo field. It was a plain on the border of Bosnia, Serbia and Albania, it was also called the Drozdova Valley.
A Slavic army came out to meet the enemy, the main forces of which consisted of Serbs and Bosnians. She, according to various sources, numbered from 15 to 30 thousand soldiers. Half of the army was Lazar's warriors, the rest of the troops were put up by the ruler of the lands in Kosovo (Vukova land) and North Macedonia Vuk Brankovic and the Bosnian voivode Vlatko Vukovic, who was sent by King Tvrtko. With the Bosnians came a small detachment of Knights Hospitaller. Also on the side of the Serbs were small detachments of Albanians, Poles, Hungarians, Bulgarians and Vlachs. The weakness of the Serbian army was the lack of a unified command - three parts of the army had their own commanders. The center of the Slavic army was commanded by Prince Lazar himself, Vuk Brankovich commanded the right wing, Vlatko Vukovich - the left. Also, the Serbs and Bosnians were dominated by heavy cavalry, the infantry was small. That is, at the first failure of the cavalry, she could not retreat behind the positions of the infantry, and under her cover, rest, regroup and go on a new offensive.
Battle on the Kosovo field and its consequences
On the eve of the battle, on June 14, military councils were held in both Ottoman and Serbian camps. Some Turkish commanders suggested that camel riders be sent to the front in order to confuse the enemy. However, Bayezid opposed, since such a cunning meant disbelief in the strength of the army and the camels, when attacked by the Serbian heavy cavalry, could upset the ranks of the Ottoman army itself. Grand Vizier Ali Pasha supported him in this matter. On the advice of the allies of the Slavs, it was proposed to start the battle at night. However, the prevailing opinion was that there were enough forces to win in the afternoon. The allies also quarreled - Vuk Brankovich accused Milos Obilich of betrayal.
Among the Turks, the right wing was commanded by Evrenos and Bayazid, the left wing was commanded by Yakub, in the center was the Sultan himself. There is no exact picture of the battle. It is known that the battle began with a shootout of archers. Then the heavy Serbian cavalry went on the offensive along the entire front. The Serbs were able to break through the left flank of the Ottoman army under the command of Yakub, the Turks were pushed back. Here the Turks suffered heavy losses. In the center and on the right flank, the Ottomans held out. Although in the center, the troops of Lazarus also pressed the enemy. Then the Serbian heavy cavalry lost its shock capabilities and got bogged down in the enemy's defense. The Turkish infantry and cavalry began to go over to the offensive, pushing the disordered enemy ranks. On the right wing, Bayezid struck a counterattack, pushed back the Serb cavalry and struck at their weak infantry. The positions of the Serbian infantry were broken through, and they fled.
Vuk Brankovich, trying to save his troops, left the battlefield. He led his detachment beyond the river. Sitnitsa. Later, the people cursed Vuk Brankovic, accusing him of treason. The Bosnians, attacked by Bayezid, also ran after him. The Serbian army was defeated. Prince Lazar was captured and executed.
It is interesting that during the battle an unusual situation arose in the camp of the Turkish army. Sultan Murad was killed there. There is no exact information about this event. According to one information, at the beginning of the battle, a Serb defector named Milos Obilic was brought to him. He promised to tell important information about the Slavic army. When Milos was brought to Murad, he killed the Ottoman ruler with an unexpected blow of a dagger. The Serb was immediately hacked to death by the guards. According to another version, the sultan was on the battlefield, among the defeated soldiers, and an unknown Christian, pretending to be dead, unexpectedly attacked Murad and killed him. Another version reports about a group of soldiers who, in the midst of the battle, broke through the Ottoman ranks and killed Murad.
Be that as it may, the selfless act of the Serbian soldier did not affect the outcome of the battle. The Turks won a complete victory. True, a lightning coup took place in the Ottoman leadership. Bayazid immediately during the battle ordered to kill his brother Yakub in order to avoid the struggle for the throne.
The battle on the Kosovo field decided the fate of Serbia. Militarily, the victory was not complete. The Ottomans suffered such losses that they could not continue the offensive and retreated. The new Sultan Bayazid did not tempt fate and hurried back to strengthen his position in the state. Vuk Brankovic, the ruler of Kosovo, recognized the power of the Sultan only in the early 1390s. And the Bosnian king Tvrtko generally declared the victory of Christians. The death of Murad and his son Yakub in the battle confirmed his words, the victory over the Turks was reported in Byzantium and other Christian countries.
However, strategically it was a victory for the Ottoman army. After the death of Lazarus, Serbia was no longer able to unite and mobilize forces for a new battle, and a long confrontation on its borders. The Ottomans easily survived the heavy losses of the army. Their war machine easily made up for the losses and continued their expansion. Soon Stefan Lazarevich, the young son and heir of Lazar, the regent until his adulthood was the mother of Milits, was forced to recognize himself as Bayezid's vassal. Serbia began to pay tribute in silver, and provide the Sultan with troops at his first request. Stephen was Bayezid's loyal vassal and fought for him. Stephen's sister and Lazarus' daughter, Oliver, were given into Bayezid's harem. Until the middle of the 15th century, Serbia was a vassal of Turkey, then it became one of the provinces of the Ottoman Empire. Bosnia, where after the death of Tvrtko in 1391, his sons unleashed civil strife, also became an easy prey for the Turks.
The battle on the Kosovo field made Bayezid Lightning the master of the Balkans. The Byzantine emperor felt so weak that, in fact, he became a vassal of the Sultan. The Byzantines even helped the Ottomans take Fildelphia, located east of Smyrna, the last Greek possession in western Asia Minor. In 1393 the Turks captured the Bulgarian capital Tarnovo. By 1395, the last bulwark of the Bulgarians fell - Vidin. Bulgaria was conquered by the Turks. Ottoman troops occupied the Peloponnese, Greek princes became vassals of the Sultan. The confrontation between Turkey and Hungary began. Thus, by the end of the century, the Ottomans conquered a significant part of the Balkan Peninsula.
