The Russians entered the struggle with Turkey during the time of Ivan the Terrible. And this struggle was not for individual lands, but for the preservation of the entire Russian and Slavic civilization, Orthodoxy. The Ottoman sultans claimed not only the Balkans, but also the lands of the Commonwealth, including Little Russia (Ukraine). They also considered themselves the heirs of the khans of the Golden Horde, so they subjugated the Crimea and tried to extend their power to Astrakhan and Kazan.
Rise of the Ottomans
The Ottoman Turks were one of the Turkic tribes who migrated from Central Asia during the invasion of Genghis Khan and settled in the northwestern part of Asia Minor. They were part of the Seljuk state. They received their name from the ruler Osman (1299-1324).
Taking advantage of the turmoil and collapse in the Seljuk state, Osman began to rule independently. He seized the Greek (Byzantine) possessions in Asia Minor. The Ottomans used the degradation of Byzantium and began to build their power on its ruins. Already under Osman, the lands around the large city of Brusy (Bursa) were seized.
At first, the Turks did not know how to take large and well-fortified cities. But they occupied all communications, roads, captured all the surrounding towns and villages, cut off supply. After that, large cities surrendered. After Bursa (1326) Nicaea and Nicomedia surrendered. In addition, the Ottomans initially pursued a fairly liberal policy towards other religious and ethnic groups, so surrender was more profitable than resistance to the last.
Other tribes of the Turks began to join the Ottoman Empire. And soon they subdued the western part of Asia Minor, reached the Marmara and Black Seas. In the middle of the XIV century. the Ottomans crossed the Black Sea straits and seized a bridgehead in Europe. They captured Gallipoli, Adrianople (Edirne), moved the capital to it. Constantinople was blockaded and became a tributary of the Ottomans. The conquest of the Balkans began.
The defeat of the Christian and Balkan countries was predetermined by their internal weakness, fragmentation, strife and conflicts. In addition, the Christian states were unable to join forces to jointly confront a formidable new enemy.
The Turks moved to Serbia and defeated the Serbian army in the battle on the Kosovo field (Serbian catastrophe. Battle on the Kosovo field). Serbia was conquered.
Then they fell upon Bulgaria: in 1393 the Bulgarian capital Tarnov fell. In 1396 - the last free Bulgarian town of Vidin.
After that, the Turks began to threaten Hungary. In 1396, the Ottomans defeated the Christian army at Nikopol. The conquests were accompanied by plunder, the enslavement of tens of thousands of people. The masses of the Muslim population were resettled to the Balkans in order to secure the conquered territories for themselves.
Further expansion of the Ottomans was slowed down by the invasion of the great conqueror Timur. Iron lame in 1402 defeated the Ottomans in the battle of Ankara. Sultan Bayazid was captured and died in captivity. Timur divided the Ottoman Empire between Bayezid's sons. For some time, the Ottoman Empire plunged into turmoil.
The struggle for power was won by Mehmed I. First, he seized Bursa, then possessions in Europe. Restored and strengthened the unity of the state. His successor Murad, having consolidated his power in Asia Minor, began new conquests in Europe. In 1444, the Ottomans defeated the Polish-Hungarian army near Varna. In 1448, the army of the Hungarians and the Vlachs was crushed in the battle on the Kosovo field. This finally decided the fate of the Balkans, they found themselves under the Turkish yoke.
The military power of the Ottoman state
In March 1453, the Ottoman army laid siege to the Second Rome - Constantinople, the capital of the once great Byzantine Empire. However, pampered, mired in luxury and trade, long forgotten about military labor, the population of the Great City did not rush to the walls, preferring to sit at home. The walls were assigned to several thousand mercenaries. They fought well, but they simply could not hold the defense for a long time in such a huge city.
In the countries of Western Europe they talked a lot about helping the Second Rome, organizing a "crusade" against the Ottomans. But in general, everything was limited to good intentions. But one successful campaign could save Constantinople. And many centuries of Turkish expansion, a "powder keg" in the Balkans, a constant source of conflicts and wars could have been avoided.
On May 29, 1453, the Turks took Constantinople (Fall of Constantinople and the Byzantine Empire; Part 2; Part 3).
The last Byzantine Basileus Constantine Palaeologus fell in battle. Several hundred people were killed right in St. Sophia. Sultan Mehmed II drove into the temple directly over the corpses. And the order to convert him to a mosque.
Heavy cavalry (sipahi), which was formed from the nobility, played a great role in the victories of the Ottomans. They lived from timars - estates or any kind of enterprises, trades. And they were obliged during the war to appear at the service "on horseback, crowded and armed," personally and with a detachment.
Also of great importance was the regular infantry - the Janissaries ("new army"). The first detachment was formed during the reign of Orhan (1324-1360) and consisted of only a thousand people. Under Murad II (1421-1444), when the need for a well-trained and organized infantry increased significantly, the main method of manning the Janissary corps changed.
Since the 1430s, a systematic selection of children from Christian families (Bulgarians, Greeks, Serbs, Georgians, Armenians, Russians, etc.) began for training in soldiers. For this, a "blood tax" (devshirme) was introduced. The system boiled down to the fact that (not always regularly) from Christian communities took about every fifth boy 6-18 years old. The children were brought up in the Islamic tradition and forgot their roots.
They were completely loyal to the Sultan, having no family, tribal ties at the court, so the head of the empire balanced the power and strength of the Turkic nobility. Received a fairly good education, the most capable became officials, could rise high. Some of them became palace servants, sailors, builders. Most were given up as soldiers, served in the regular infantry, the personal protection of the Sultan.
Janissaries studied the art of war, lived in isolation, in barracks, where there was a strict "monastery" charter. Initially, they were forbidden to marry and acquire an economy. The warriors were raised by the Sufi order of Bektashi. Personally loyal to the Sultan, the fanatical, organized, and disciplined infantry was a powerful strike force for the empire.
Also, in the 15th century, Porta was able to create the best artillery in the world, both in the number of barrels and in their firepower. The Ottoman gunners were well trained. The best Western military specialists and gunsmiths were also invited to the artillery.
So, during the siege of Constantinople, the Hungarian foundry Urban cast a copper bombard with a caliber of 24 inches (610 mm) for the Ottomans, which fired stone cannonballs weighing about 20 pounds (328 kg). It took 60 bulls and 100 people to transport it. To eliminate the rollback, a stone wall was built behind the cannon. In 1480, during the battles for the island of Rhodes, the Turks used heavy guns of 24-35 inches (610-890 mm).
Turkish expansion
Not surprisingly, in the 16th century, Turkey became the strongest state in Europe.
Mehmed II built a strong military fleet, which included up to 3 thousand pennants. During the wars with Venice and Genoa, the Turks seize the islands of the Aegean Sea. Only Crete was held by the Venetians, but the Ottomans captured it in 1669.
True, the Venetians were able to maintain their trading privileges in Constantinople and even expand them. We got the right to duty-free trade, the right to be outside the jurisdiction of Venetian citizens and Turkish courts.
In southern Italy, the Turks captured the city of Otranto, which controls the outlet to the Adriatic Sea. The fate of Otranto showed the possible future of all of Italy. Half of the residents were killed for stubborn resistance. Hundreds of prisoners were executed for refusing to convert to Islam, 8 thousand people were sold into slavery. Mehmed even prepared a large campaign to Italy to capture the peninsula, but due to his death, the campaign was canceled.
In 1459, the Turks captured all of Serbia. 200 thousand Serbs were taken into slavery, many Serbian lands were settled by Muslims. Then the Sultan's army captured Morea, Bosnia. The power of Constantinople was recognized by the Danube principalities - Moldova and Wallachia.
In the 1470s (after a hard struggle) the Turks managed to subdue most of Albania. Mehmed extended his rule to all of Asia Minor.
The Ottomans conquered the Trebizond Empire, a Greek state in the north of Asia Minor (a fragment of Byzantium). The Turks took Sinop without a fight as a result of the betrayal of the governor. Trebizond itself (Trabzon) was attacked from land and sea. Its defenders fought bravely for almost a month and made successful forays. Fortifications and food supplies made it possible to hold the siege for a long time. But Emperor David and the nobility were afraid. And they preferred to surrender the city. The dynasty during this period completely degenerated, the palace became a place of terrible crimes and vices. The aristocracy is mired in hedonism.
In 1475, the Turkish fleet with a large landing appeared off the coast of the Crimea. The Turks captured Kafa, Kerch, Sudak and other cities on the coast. The Crimean Khan became a vassal of the Sultan. It was a strong blow to Genoa, which lost Cafa and a number of other strongholds in the Crimea.
Then Herzegovina finally fell under the rule of the Turks. At the beginning of the XVI century. began a stubborn confrontation between Turkey and Iran, who fought for the Arabian lands. The confrontation also had a religious aspect. In Iran, Shiism dominated, in Turkey - Sunnism. Sultan Selim staged a genocide of Shiites in the empire, massacred tens of thousands of people.
In August 1514, the Sultan's army defeated the Persian army in the Chaldyran valley near Lake Van. The number of troops and their combat capability was approximately equal. But the Ottomans had a preponderance of firearms. Turkish cannons and squeaks inflicted enormous damage on the Shah's cavalry. The Turks captured and plundered the Shah's capital, Tabriz. Part of Armenia with Erzurum is under the rule of the Ottomans.
Also, the Ottomans subjugated the southeastern part of Anatolia, Kurdistan, captured such large cities as Diyarbekir, Mosul and Mardin. Selim then moved an army against Mamluk Egypt.
In August 1516, on the Dabik field, the Turkish army defeated the Mamluks. The outcome of the battle was decided by the Turkish artillery. Selim's artillery, hidden behind tied carts and wooden barricades, swept away the Mamluk cavalry, which was better than the Turkish.
In addition, the Mamluk nobility and warriors were unhappy with their sultan Kansuh al-Gauri. Some of the soldiers left their positions. The governor of Aleppo Khair-bek went over to the side of the Ottomans. The Mamluk army was upset and the Ottoman counteroffensive was successful. And Sultan Kansukh was killed during the battle. Possibly poisoned.
After that, the largest Syrian cities (Syria was part of the Mamluk Sultanate) surrendered to the Ottomans without a fight. The Syrians rebelled against the Mamluks everywhere.
Selim takes the title of Caliph, spiritual and secular ruler of all Muslims (before that, the Mamluk sultans were considered the head of all Muslims).
In December 1516, the Turks defeated the Mamluks in Palestine. In January 1517, Cairo was taken by storm. The Mamluk nobility goes over to the side of the Ottoman Sultan. In April, the last Mamluk sultan, Tumanbai, was hanged at the gates of Cairo. Egypt became a province of Turkey. The Ottomans seized huge booty there.
At the same time, the ruler of the Hejaz, which included the holy cities of Muslims - Mecca and Medina, recognized him as the caliph. Hejaz became part of the Ottoman Empire. In addition, Turkish pirates captured the large port of Algeria and the adjacent lands. Their famous leader Hayreddin Barbarossa recognized the supreme power of the Sultan. He received the title of beylerbey (governor) of Algeria.
New conquests in Europe
The conquests in the Balkans, Asia Minor, Syria, Arabia, Palestine and North Africa almost widowed the Ottoman Empire's possessions. Many areas with fertile lands, forests, major trade and craft centers, trade routes and ports were captured.
The heavy defeat of Iran and the defeat of the Mamluk empire made Turkey the hegemony of the Middle East. Now the Ottomans had a solid rear and could continue the conquest of Europe.
In 1520 Suleiman came to the throne. His first goal, he made the conquest of Hungary, which from the end of the 15th century. was subjected to devastating Ottoman raids. The kingdom was experiencing a severe internal crisis (the struggle of large feudal lords). And it seemed like easy prey. The conquest of Hungary made it possible to gain a foothold in Central Europe and control the Danube - the largest and most important trade route in Europe.
In 1521, the Turkish army laid siege to Belgrade, which was then part of the Kingdom of Hungary. The garrison fought desperately, repelling many assaults. Turkish cannons installed on an island in the waters of the Danube destroyed the walls. On August 29, 1521, the city fell. Most of the prisoners were killed by the victors.
After the capture of Belgrade, Suleiman was distracted for some time by Rhodes (the Turks had already attacked the island twice, but unsuccessfully). 300 ships with 10 thousand troops headed for the capture of the island. The military fleet of the Rhodes knights often attacked the Turkish sea communications.
The Turks landed on the island in the summer of 1522. The siege of the fortress of Rhodes dragged on. The Knights Hospitallers (6-7 thousand knights, squires, servants, mercenaries and militias) defended themselves bravely. Suleiman the Magnificent had to increase the fleet to 400 pennants, and the army to 100 thousand people. Order of St. John held out for six months, repelled several major assaults.
The Ottomans suffered huge losses - up to 30-40 thousand people. Having exhausted all the possibilities of struggle, at the end of December 1522 the fortress surrendered. The knights surrendered on honorable terms. The surviving defenders left the island freely, taking the banners, relics and cannons. The Hospitallers moved to Italy, then received a new base - Malta.
After capturing Rhodes, the Ottomans completely controlled the Eastern Mediterranean. Constantinople practically cleared its sea routes with ports in the Levant and North Africa.
Storming of Vienna
The main battle for the Hungarian lands took place on August 29, 1526 near the town of Mohacs, on the right bank of the Danube. The Hungarian army was much inferior to the enemy: King Lajos II had 25 thousand soldiers and 80 cannons. He did not wait for strong reinforcements from Transylvania, led by Janos Zapolyai, and the approach of the Croatian cavalry. Suleiman had at least 50 thousand soldiers and 160 cannons (according to other sources, 100 thousand and 300 cannons). However, the Hungarian king chose to start the battle.
The Hungarian cavalry broke through the first line of the enemy and was linked in battle with the Turkish infantry. After that, Turkish artillery from the infantry orders began to shoot the enemy. The Christian cavalry mixed. The Turks brought in reserves into battle. And, having a large numerical superiority, they began to press the enemy along the entire line. The Hungarians were pressed to the Danube, the remnants of the cavalry fled, the infantry fought staunchly, but was killed. Almost the entire royal army was destroyed. 15 thousand easily on the battlefield, the prisoners were executed. The king himself and his generals perished. Mohacs was taken and plundered.
The way to the Hungarian capital was opened. Two weeks later, the Ottomans occupied Buda without a fight. They conquered central Hungary. The Sultan made Janos Zapolyai king, who recognized himself as his vassal. The Sultan's army set off on its return journey, taking away tens of thousands of prisoners, capturing the treasures of the palace of the Hungarian king, including a rich library. On the way, many towns and villages were destroyed and devastated. During this war, the country lost up to 200 thousand people, almost a tenth of the population.
When the Ottomans left Hungary, large feudal lords revolted against Janos Zapolyai, who were guided by Austria. Archduke Ferdinand of Austria captured Buda. Zapolyai asked for help from Suleiman. In September 1529, the Ottoman army, with the help of the Zapolyai troops, again took Buda. Then the Turks went to Vienna. From late September to mid-October 1529, the Ottomans stormed the walls of Vienna. The city held on. The Ottoman army suffered heavy losses - about 40 thousand people.
Due to heavy losses and the approach of winter, Suleiman had to retreat. In 1533, a peace agreement was signed in Constantinople. In 1547, another treaty was signed in Edirne. Turkey and Austria divided Hungary. Eastern and central Hungary remained under the rule of the Ports, Western and Northern Hungary fell to Austria.
Now the Turkish threat in Europe is well appreciated. And the resistance increased dramatically. They were opposed by the Habsburgs, Rome and Venice.
The wars of Austria and Turkey over Hungary and Transylvania continued.
For a long time, Persia was the main enemy of the Ottomans in Asia.
