Francisco Pradilla. Surrender of Granada to Their Spanish Majesties Isabella and Ferdinand
Full of sincere triumph, the triumphal procession entered the conquered city, surrendering to the mercy of the victors. Trumpets and drums with a pompous roar drove out the eastern tranquility of the streets, heralds burst into tears, the wind rinsed the banners with the coats of arms of houses, whole generations of which served the seemingly eternal work of the reconquista with a sword. Their Majesties, King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, finally deigned to honor their recent acquisition with their presence. Granada was the last bastion of Islam in the Iberian Peninsula, and now the horseshoes of the horses of the monarch's couple clinked on it. This event was tirelessly dreamed of, it was patiently awaited, it was wondered about and, undoubtedly, predicted for infinitely long seven hundred years. Finally, the crescent, tired of the suddenly useless struggle, rolled off behind Gibraltar into the North African deserts, giving way to the cross. There was plenty of everything in Granada at that historical moment: the joy and pride of the victors, the grief and confusion of the vanquished. Gradually and unhurriedly, like a royal banner over the Alhambra, a page of history turned over, heavy with blood and broken iron. It was January 1492 from the birth of Christ.
Sunrise and sunset
The Arab conquests of the 7th – 8th centuries were large-scale in their political and territorial results. Vast territories from the Persian Gulf to the Atlantic coast were ruled by the powerful caliphs. A number of states, for example, such as the Sassanian Empire, were simply destroyed. The once mighty Byzantine Empire lost its rich Middle Eastern and North African provinces. Having reached the Atlantic, the wave of the Arab onslaught spilled out onto the Iberian Peninsula and covered it. In the 8th century, newcomers from the Middle East easily overwhelmed the loose state of the Visigoths and reached the Pyrenees. The remnants of the Visigothic nobility, who did not want to submit to the invaders, retreated to the mountainous regions of Asturias, where they formed the kingdom of the same name in 718, headed by the newly elected king Pelayo. Sent to pacify the rebellious Arab punitive detachment in 722 was lured into the gorge and destroyed. This event was the beginning of a long process that went down in history as a reconquista.
The further advance of the Arabs to Europe was stopped in 732 at Poitiers, where the Frankish king Karl Martell put an end to the eastern expansion into Europe. The wave ran into an obstacle, which it was no longer able to overcome, and it flew back to the lands of Spain. The confrontation between the small Christian kingdoms, behind which there were only mountains, the Bay of Biscay and firm confidence in the correctness of their actions, and the Arab rulers, under whose control most of the peninsula by the beginning of the 9th century, was like a grueling positional war.
Soon after the invasion of Spain, the huge Arab Caliphate was engulfed in civil war, and it fell apart into several independent states. Formed on the Iberian Peninsula, the Cordoba Caliphate, in turn, in 1031 itself disintegrated into many small emirates. Like Christian rulers, Muslims were also at enmity not only with a direct enemy, but also among themselves, not shying away from even concluding alliances with the enemy for internecine struggle. The reconquista now and then moved forward territorially, only to later roll back to the previous lines. Recent winners have become tributaries of their defeated rivals, who have regained strength and fortune, and vice versa. All this was accompanied by intrigues, bribery, conspiracies, intense diplomatic fuss, when agreements and agreements had time to lose their force already at the moment of their signing.
The religious factor also added a special acuteness to the confrontation. Gradually, the scales tipped in favor of Christians as a more organized and united military force. In the middle of the 13th century, during the reign of King Fernando III of Castile, Christian armies took control of the largest and most prosperous cities of Iberia, including Cordoba and Seville. Only the Emirate of Granada and several small enclaves, which soon fell into dependence on Castile, remained in the hands of the Arabs. For a certain period, a certain equilibrium was established between the opposing, but no longer equal in strength, a kind of equilibrium was established: a large-scale trade with North Africa was carried out through Granada, from where many valuable goods were imported. As an economic and, moreover, a vassal partner, the emirate for some time (the entire XIII and early XIV centuries) suited the Castilian kings, and was not touched. But sooner or later, in the centuries-old, which has acquired its history, mythology and heroic epic, the Reconquista had to put an end to it. And the hour of Granada struck.
Close neighbors, longtime enemies
Catholicism in Spain, despite the common canonical identity, still had some local characteristics and flavor. The protracted war with Muslims lent it a pronounced belligerence and only intensified traditional religious intolerance. Building Christian churches on the foundations of Muslim mosques has become an established tradition in the Iberian Peninsula. By the XV century. the growth of rejection of representatives of other faiths became especially visible. The complete absence of religious tolerance was supported not only by the church, and so not distinguished by good nature to heretics, but also by the state apparatus itself.
Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile
In 1469, the wedding took place between King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile, two of Spain's most influential Christian monarchs. Although formally each of the spouses ruled in their territorial destiny, only by coordinating their actions with each other, Spain took a colossal step towards unification. The ruling couple hatched ambitious plans to unite the entire peninsula under their rule and the victorious completion of the centuries-old Reconquista. And it is quite obvious that in the future that Ferdinand and Isabella envisioned, there was no place for the Emirate of Granada, which increasingly resembles the anachronism of the long-gone era of Sid Campeador's glorious exploits.
The papacy in Rome showed a keen interest in the final solution of the Arab problem in Spain. Islam once again stood at the gates of Europe, this time Eastern. The rapidly growing Ottoman Empire, which quickly made its way from a small tribal union to a great power, grinding the decrepit body of Byzantium, firmly established itself in the Balkans. The fall from the brief siege of Constantinople in 1453 frightened Christendom. And the final expulsion of the Moors from the Iberian Peninsula was already becoming an interstate political task. In addition, the internal position of Aragon and Castile left much to be desired, especially with regard to the economy. The Inquisition, which had appeared in Spain in 1478, was already in full swing, the population suffered from high taxes. War seemed like the best way to release the accumulated tension.
The last bastion of the crescent
The southern region of Castile, Andalusia, directly bordered on Muslim lands. This land was in many ways a territory of undeclared war, where both sides carried out raids and raids inland, disturbing neighbors and seizing trophies and prisoners. This did not interfere with the official peaceful coexistence of the Christian kingdoms and the Emirate of Granada. This fragment of the Islamic world experienced not only external but also internal tension. Neighborhood with irreconcilable neighbors, Catholic kingdoms, made war inevitable. In addition, by the end of the XIV century, the Granada emirs actually stopped paying tribute to Castile, on which they were in vassalage, which already implied a challenge. The cities and fortresses of the emirate were constantly fortified, it had a disproportionately large army for its modest size. To maintain such a military structure in the proper fighting capacity, the basis of which was made up of numerous Berber mercenaries from North Africa, the authorities constantly raised taxes. The upper echelons of the nobility, represented by traditional family clans and representatives of noble families, fought for power and influence at court, which did not impart internal stability to the state. The situation was aggravated by numerous refugees from Christian lands, where persecution of persons professing Islam intensified. The very existence of the Granada Emirate under the conditions of the almost complete territorial domination of the Christian monarchies on the peninsula in the realities of the second half of the 15th century was already a challenge and was completely unacceptable.
Ferdinand and Isabella completely abandon the concept of the peaceful penetration of two cultures in favor of the complete destruction of Islam in Spain. The same was demanded by the numerous and warlike nobility, yearned for military campaigns, booty and victories, whose whole generations had served the cause of the Reconquista.
Warriors of the Granada Emirate: 1) commander; 2) foot crossbowman; 3) heavy cavalry
Despite its small size and limited internal resources, Granada remained a tough nut to crack for the Christian side. The country had 13 large fortresses, which were largely fortified, however, this fact was leveled by the superiority of the Spaniards in artillery. The emirate's army consisted of an armed militia, a small professional army, mostly cavalry, and numerous volunteers and mercenaries from North Africa. At the beginning of the 15th century, the Portuguese were able to seize a number of territories on the other side of Gibraltar, which made the influx of those wishing to fight in Moorish Spain much smaller. The emir also had a personal guard consisting of young former Christians who converted to Islam. The Christian side estimated the total strength of the Granada Mauritanian army at 50 thousand infantry and 7 thousand cavalry. However, the quality of this military force was patchy. For example, she was largely inferior to the enemy in firearms.
Spanish soldiers: 1) Aragonese light cavalry; 2) Castilian peasant militia; 3) don Alvaro de Luna (mid-15th century)
The basis of the combined army of Ferdinand and Isabella was the heavy knightly cavalry, which consisted of the noble grandees and their cavalry detachments. Individual bishops and orders of chivalry, such as the Order of Santiago, also fielded armed contingents, formed and equipped on their own initiative. The religious component of the war drew parallels with the crusades 200-300 years ago and attracted knights from other Christian states: England, Burgundy, France under the banners of Aragon and Castile. Since the Muslim population, as a rule, fled when the Christian army approached, taking all supplies with them, it was planned to solve the logistics problems with the help of almost 80 thousand mules, unpretentious and hardy animals. In total, the Christian army had in its ranks 25 thousand infantry (city militia and mercenaries), 14 thousand cavalry and 180 guns.
Border warm-up
Ferdinand and Isabella did not come to the realization of the Granada project immediately. A few years after the wedding, the wife of the King of Aragon had to defend her rights to the throne of Castile with her niece Juana, daughter of the deceased King Enrique IV. The struggle between Isabella, supported by Aragon, and the opposite side, which was actively sympathized with France and Portugal, lasted from 1475 to 1479. During this time, the border areas between the Christian territories and the emirate lived their own lives and were in constant flux. Raids on a neighbor's territory have alternated with short and unstable ceasefires. Finally, Isabella managed to cope with her rival and move from solving domestic political problems to foreign policy tasks.
Rodrigo Ponce de Leon, Marquis de Cadiz (monument in Seville)
Another flimsy truce, signed in 1478, was broken off in 1481. The troops of the Emir of Granada, Abu al-Hasan Ali, in response to the systematic raids of the Spaniards, crossed the border and, on the night of December 28, captured the Castilian border city of Saaru. The garrison was taken by surprise, and numerous prisoners were taken. Before this event, Granada once again confirmed the refusal to pay tribute to Castile. The reaction from the Spanish side was quite predictable. Two months later, a strong detachment under the command of Rodrigo Ponce de Leon, the Marquis de Cádiz, consisting of several thousand people of infantry and cavalry, attacked and took control of the strategically important Moorish fortress of Alhama, overcoming the resistance of a small garrison. The complex of these events became the starting point of the Granada War.
Now the royal couple decided to support the initiative of their subjects - the actions of the Marquis of Cadiz were highly approved, and the Spanish garrison of Alhama received reinforcements. The emir's attempts to recapture the fortress were unsuccessful. Ferdinand and Isabella decided to organize a large-scale expedition against the city of Lohi, in order, first of all, to establish a reliable connection by land with the Alhama garrison. Leaving Cordoba, the Spanish army under the command of King Ferdinand arrived at Loja on July 1, 1482. The area around the city was full of irrigation canals and was of little use for the heavy Spanish cavalry. In addition, the royal troops were stationed in several fortified camps. Experienced in military affairs against the Arabs, Andalusian officers offered to stand closer to the walls of Loja, but their command rejected their plan.
On the night of July 5, the commander of the Lohi Ali al-Atgar garrison, secretly from the enemy, threw a cavalry detachment across the river, which was well disguised. In the morning, the main forces of the Arabs left the city, provoking the Spaniards into battle. The signal to attack was immediately sounded in the Christian army, and the heavy cavalry rushed to the enemy. The Moors, not accepting the battle, began to retreat, their pursuers in a fever followed them. At this time, the Arab cavalry detachment, concealed in advance, struck a blow at the Spanish camp, ruining the train and capturing numerous trophies. The attacking Christian cavalry, having learned what was happening in her camp, turned back. And at that moment Ali al-Atgar stopped his supposed retreat and attacked himself. A stubborn battle went on for several hours, after which the Moors retreated beyond the walls of Loja.
The day was clearly not a good one for His Majesty's army, and in the evening Ferdinand convened a council of war, at which, taking into account the general wear and tear, it was decided to retreat across the Frio River and wait there for reinforcements from Cordoba. At night, the more or less orderly withdrawal that began turned into an unorganized flight, since the reconnaissance patrols of the Mauritanian cavalry were naturally taken by the Spaniards for whole hordes. Ferdinand had to end the operation and return to Cordoba. The failure under the walls of Loja showed the Spaniards that they had to deal with a very strong and skillful enemy, so that an easy and quick victory could not be expected.
However, in Granada itself, there was no unity among the ruling elite, even in the face of an eternal enemy. Arriving in Lohu, Emir Abu al-Hasan was unpleasantly surprised by the news that his son Abu Abdullah had rebelled against his father and proclaimed himself Emir Muhammad XII. He was supported by that part of the nobility who wanted a peaceful coexistence with Castile, observing primarily economic interests. While Granada was shaken by internal turmoil, the Spaniards made the next move. In March 1483, the Grand Master of the Order of Santiago, Don Alfonso de Cardenas, decided to carry out a large-scale raid on the region adjacent to the main port of the Emirate of Malaga, where, according to his information, a garrison was located, and there was a high probability of capturing a large prey. The detachment, consisting mainly of cavalry, slowly moved through the mountainous terrain. Smoke from the devastated villages signaled to the Malaga garrison, which was in fact much stronger than the Spaniards had anticipated, about the approaching enemy.
The Spaniards were not ready for a full-scale battle with a serious enemy and were forced to retreat. In the darkness they lost their way, got lost and in a mountain gorge were attacked by the Moors, who not only inflicted a serious defeat on them, but also took many prisoners. In an effort to win more supporters and oppose his own successes to the military glory of his father, the rebellious Mohammed XII in April 1483, at the head of an army of nearly 10,000, set out to besiege the city of Lucena. During the hostilities, he lost the best of his commanders - Ali al-Atgar, who distinguished himself at Lokh, the army of the self-proclaimed emir was defeated, and Muhammad XII himself was captured. His father Abu al-Hasan only strengthened his position, and the authorities of Granada proclaimed the son of the emir a weapon in the hands of the infidels.
However, the "infidels" had some plans for the disgraced and now captured Emir's son. They began to conduct explanatory work with him: Muhammad was offered assistance in seizing the Granada throne in exchange for a vassal dependence on Castile. Meanwhile, the war continued. In the spring of 1484, the Spanish army raided, this time successful, in the Malaga area, devastating its surroundings. The supply of troops was carried out with the help of ships. Within a month and a half, the royal army ravaged this rich region, causing enormous damage. Under the command of King Ferdinand, the Spaniards captured Alora in June 1484 - this was the successful end of the military expedition.
Fracture
In early 1485, King Ferdinand took his next step in the war - attacking the city of Ronda. The Moorish garrison of Ronda, believing that the enemy was concentrated near Malaga, carried out a raid on Spanish territory in the area of Medina Sidonia. Returning to Ronda, the Moors found that the city was besieged by a large Christian army and was being shelled by artillery. The garrison was unable to break through to the city, and on May 22, Rhonda fell. The capture of this important point allowed Ferdinand and Isabella to take control of most of western Granada.
The disasters for Muslims did not end this year: Emir Abu al-Hasan died of a heart attack, and the throne was now in the hands of his younger brother, Az-Zagal, a gifted military leader who now became Muhammad XIII. He managed to stop the advance of the Spaniards in several directions, to put his own army in order. But the position of Granada, surrounded on all sides by the enemy, remained extremely difficult. The royal couple introduced the saved and repainted figure of Muhammad XII into the game, freeing him from captivity. Realizing all the pernicious path on which he was, the old new pretender to the emir's throne was now ready to become a vassal of Castile and receive the title of duke - in exchange for a war with his own uncle and support for the actions of Ferdinand and Isabella. On September 15, 1486, at the head of his supporters, Muhammad XII burst into Granada - street battles began between them and the capital's garrison.
On the night of April 6, 1487, an earthquake occurred in Cordoba, which was perceived by the Spanish army preparing for the campaign as a good sign, symbolizing the imminent fall of Granada. The next day, the army led by Ferdinand marched towards the well-fortified city of Velez-Malaga, the capture of which would open the way to Malaga, the main port of the Emirate of Granada. Attempts by Muhammad XIII to interfere with the movement of the enemy, burdened with heavy artillery, did not lead to success. On April 23, 1487, the Spaniards began shelling the city, and on the same day the news came that the garrison of Granada had sworn allegiance to Muhammad XII. The demoralized defenders soon surrendered Velez-Malaga, and on May 2, King Ferdinand solemnly entered the city.
The uncle of the new ruler of Granada was now supported by only a few cities, including Malaga, to whose walls the Spanish army arrived on May 7, 1487. A long siege began. The city was heavily fortified, and its garrison under the command of Hamad al-Tagri was determined to fight to the end. The food supplies in Malaga were not designed for the large number of refugees who had accumulated there. Everything in the city was eaten in any way possible, including dogs and mules. Finally, on 18 August, Malaga surrendered. Enraged by the stubborn defense of the enemy, Ferdinand treated his prisoners extremely cruelly. Most of the population was sold into slavery, many of the garrison soldiers were sent as "gifts" to the courts of other Christian monarchs. Former Christians who converted to Islam were burned alive.
The fall of Malaga put the entire western part of the emirate in the hands of the royal couple, but the rebellious Mohammed XIII still held some wealthy regions, including the cities of Almeria, Guadix and Basu. The emir himself, with a strong garrison, took refuge in the latter. In the campaign of 1489, Ferdinand led his large army to Basha and began a siege. This process took so long that it had an impact not only on the economy of Castile, but also on the morale of the army. The use of artillery against a well-fortified fortress turned out to be ineffective, military expenditures were constantly growing. Queen Isabella personally arrived at the besiegers' camp to support the fighting soldiers with her personal presence. Finally, after six months of siege in December 1489, Basa fell. The terms of surrender were largely generous and the situation after the fall of Malaga was not observed. Muhammad XIII recognized the power of Christian monarchs, and in return was endowed with the consoling title of "king" of the Alhaurin and Andaras valleys. Now shrinking in size and losing access to the sea, Granada was ruled by the de facto vassal of the Christian kings, Mohammed XII, who liked what was happening less and less.
Fall of Granada
Muhammad XII Abu Abdallah (Boabdil)
With the removal of Mohammed XIII from the game, the likelihood of an early end to the war became obvious. Ferdinand and Isabella hoped that their protégé, now the emir of Granada, would show, from their point of view, prudence and hand over this city into the hands of Christians, content with the comforting title of duke. However, Muhammad XII felt deprived - after all, Ferdinand promised to transfer some cities under his rule, including those under the control of his pacified uncle. The emir could not understand in any way that once he took the path of cooperation with the enemy and paid for his own ambitions with the interests of his own country, he would sooner or later lose everything.
Realizing that he was in a trap he had created with his own hands, and not counting on the mercy of powerful allies who remained enemies, the emir began to seek support from other Muslim states. However, neither the Sultan of Egypt an-Nasir Muhammad, nor the rulers of the North African states came to the aid of the landlocked Granada. Egypt was in anticipation of a war with the Turks, and Castile and Aragon were enemies of the Ottomans, and the Mamluk Sultan's quarrel with Ferdinand and Isabella was out of hand. North Africa generally sold wheat to Castile and was not interested in war.
Serious passions seethed around the emir. His mother Fatima and members of the nobility insisted on further resistance. Inspired by support, the emir withdrew his vassal oath and declared himself the leader of the Moorish resistance. In June 1490 he launched an almost hopeless campaign against Aragon and Castile. The hostilities began with devastating raids on Spanish territory. Ferdinand did not strike back once, but began to strengthen the border fortresses, waiting for the arrival of reinforcements. Despite the fact that the emir of Granada still had a sizable army, time was working against him. The resources and capabilities of the opposing sides were already incomparable. Although the Moors managed to recapture several castles from the enemy, they could not accomplish the main thing: to resume control of the coastline.
Winter 1490-1491 passed in mutual preparations. Gathering a large army, Ferdinand and Isabella in April 1491 began the siege of Granada. An imposing and well-fortified military camp was set up on the banks of the Henil River. Realizing the hopelessness of the situation, the grand vizier of Muhammad XII urged his ruler to surrender and bargain for himself generous terms of surrender. However, the emir did not consider it expedient at this stage to negotiate with the enemy, who would still deceive. The siege turned into a tight blockade of the city - the Moors, provoking the Spaniards to storm, deliberately kept some of the gates open. Their warriors drove up to the positions of Christians and involved knights in duels. When the losses as a result of such events reached impressive numbers, King Ferdinand personally forbade the duels. The Moors continued to carry out sorties, also losing men and horses.
During the siege, the chroniclers noted a number of striking episodes. Among the Moorish warriors, a certain Tarfe stood out for his strength and courage. Somehow he managed to break through at full gallop into the Spanish camp and stick his spear next to the royal tent. Tied to the shaft was a message to Queen Isabella of more than piquant content. The king's guards rushed in pursuit, but the Moor managed to escape. Such an insult could not be left unanswered, and the young knight Fernando Perez de Pulgara with fifteen volunteers managed to enter Granada through a weakly guarded passage and nailed a parchment with the words "Ave Maria" to the doors of the mosque.
On June 18, 1491, Queen Isabella wished to see the famous Alhambra. A large equestrian escort, led by the Marquis de Cadiz and the king himself, accompanied Isabella to the village of La Zubia, from which a beautiful view of Granada opened up. Noticing a large number of standards, the besieged took it as a challenge, and withdrew their cavalry from the gates. Among them was the joker Tarfe, who tied the very parchment with the words "Ave Maria" to the tail of his horse. This was too much, and the knight Fernando Perez de Pulgara asked the king for permission to answer the challenge. In the duel, Tarfe was killed. Ferdinand ordered his cavalry not to succumb to the provocations of the enemy and not to attack, but when enemy guns opened fire, the Marquis de Cadiz, at the head of his detachment, rushed to the enemy. The Moors mingled, were overturned and suffered heavy losses.
A month later, a large fire destroyed most of the Spanish camp, but the emir did not take advantage of the opportunity and did not attack. With the onset of cold weather, in order to avoid precedents, Ferdinand ordered the construction of a stone camp west of Granada. It was completed in October and named Santa Fe. Seeing that the enemies are full of the most serious intentions and will besiege the city to the last, Muhammad XII decided to negotiate. They were at first secret, since the emir was seriously afraid of hostile actions on the part of his entourage, who could accuse him of treason.
The terms of delivery were agreed on November 22nd and were rather lenient. The war and the long siege caused impressive damage to the economies of Aragon and Castile, moreover, winter was approaching, and the Spaniards feared epidemics. Muslims were allowed to practice Islam and perform services, the emir was given control over the mountainous and restless area of Alpujarras. The agreement was hidden from the inhabitants of Granada for some time - the emir was seriously afraid of reprisals against his person. On January 1, 1492, he sent 500 noble hostages to the Spanish camp. The next day Granada surrendered, and four days later the king and queen, at the head of a huge festive procession, entered the defeated city. Royal standards were raised over the Alhambra, and a cross was solemnly hoisted in place of the dropped crescent. The seven hundred year old Reconquista is over.
The Emir handed over the keys to Granada to the winners and set off for his micro-kingdom. According to legend, he sobbed as he left the city. Mother Fatima, who was driving beside her, answered these lamentations sternly: "She does not want to cry, like a woman, over what you could not protect, like a man." In 1493, having sold his possessions to the Spanish crown, the former emir left for Algeria. There he died in 1533. And a new, no less majestic page was opening in the history of Spain. Indeed, in the tail of a long solemn procession, an unknown, but extremely stubborn and persistent native of Genoa, Cristobal Colon, modestly walked, whose energy and conviction in his righteousness won the sympathy of Queen Isabella herself. A little time will pass, and in August of the same year a flotilla of three ships will enter the ocean towards the unknown. But that's a completely different story.
