At the beginning of the XIII century, Khorezm was rightfully considered one of the strongest and richest states in the world. Its rulers had at their disposal a large and battle-hardened army, pursued an aggressive foreign policy, and it was hard to believe that their state would soon fall under the blow of the Mongols.
State of Khorezmshahs
The name "Khorezm" is very ancient, it has been known from the 8th – 7th centuries BC. There are several versions of its origin. According to the first, this is a “feeding land”, supporters of the second believe that this land is “low”, and S. P. Tolstov believed that it should be translated as "Country of the Hurrians" - Khvariz.
The armies of many conquerors passed through these lands, the last were the Seljuks, whose state also included the territory of Khorezm. But the last of the Great Seljuks - Ahmad Sanjar, died in 1156. The weakened state, unable to keep the outskirts in subjection, fell to pieces.
In 1157, Khorezm gained independence, and a dynasty came to power, the penultimate representative of which destroyed the country, and the latter fought like a hero (and became a national hero of four countries), but, alas, came to power too late.
The lands, subject to the Khorezmshahs, then extended from the Aral Sea to the Persian Gulf, and from the Pamirs to the Iranian Highlands.
The extremely favorable geographic location guaranteed a stable income from the transit trade. Samarkand, Bukhara, Gurganj, Ghazni, Tabriz and other cities were famous for their artisans. Agriculture flourished in numerous fertile valleys and in an oasis in the lower reaches of the Amu Darya. The Aral Sea was rich in fish. Huge herds and flocks of cattle grazed in the endless steppe. Arab geographer Yakut al-Hamawi, who visited Khorezm shortly before the Mongol invasion, wrote:
“I don’t think that anywhere in the world there were vast lands wider than Khorezm and more populated, despite the fact that the inhabitants are accustomed to a difficult life and little contentment. Most of the villages of Khorezm are cities with markets, supplies and shops. As a rarity there are villages in which there is no market. All this with general security and complete serenity."
Victories and challenges
The state of the Khorezmshahs reached its heyday under Ala ad-Din Muhammad II, who successively defeated the Gurid Sultanate and the Karakitai Khanate, after which he appropriated the title of “second Alexander” (Macedonian).
Up to 27 hostages from among the sons of the rulers of the surrounding countries lived permanently at his court. In 1217, he even tried to lead his army to Baghdad, but because of the early winter, his army was unable to overcome the mountain passes. And then there was alarming information about the appearance of Mongol troops near the eastern borders of Khorezm, and Muhammad was not up to Baghdad.
The capital of Mohammed II at first was Gurganj (now the Turkmen city of Koneurgench), but then he moved it to Samarkand.
However, all this was only a beautiful outer wall covering an unsightly picture of inner discord and disorder.
One of the problems of Khorezm was a kind of dual power. The formidable Khorezmshah Muhammad had to reckon with in all matters the opinion of his mother Terken-khatyn, a representative of the influential "Ashira" clan, whose men held the highest military and administrative posts.
"Most of the emirs of the state were of her kind,"
- wrote Muhammad an-Nasawi.
One of the few women in the Muslim world, she had a lakab (exalting epithet as part of her name) Khudavand-i jahan - "Ruler of the World." She also had her own personal tughra (a graphic symbol that is both a seal and a coat of arms) for decrees: "The Great Terken, the protector of peace and faith, the mistress of women of both worlds." And his motto: "I seek protection only from Allah!"
When Muhammad moved his capital to Samarkand (escaped from his strict mother?), Terken-khatyn remained in Gurganj, where she had her own court, no worse and no less than her son, and continued to actively intervene in all the affairs of the state. An-Nasawi argued that if two different decrees were received from her and from the Khorezmashah on the same case, the one that came later was considered "correct".
The eldest son of Muhammad, Jelal ad-Din, who was born of the Turkmen woman Ay-chichek, hated Terken-Khatyn so much that when, during the invasion of the Mongols, the eunuch Badr ad-din Hilal suggested that she run to the new Khorezmshah, she replied:
“How can I stoop to become dependent on the grace of the son of Ay-Chichek and be under his patronage? Even captivity at Genghis Khan and my present humiliation and shame is better for me than that."
(Shihab ad-Din Muhammad an-Nasawi, "Biography of Sultan Jelal ad-Din Mankburna".)
As a result of the intrigues of Terken-khatyn, the youngest son of Muhammad, Qutb ad-Din Uzlag-shah, was declared the heir to the throne, whose only dignity was the descent from the same clan as herself. And Jalal ad-Din, who demonstrated great military successes from a young age, received Afghan Ghazna, and his father did not let him go there either, because he did not trust and was afraid of a conspiracy.
An alarming sign for a historian studying Khorezm in the XII-XIII centuries is, of course, information about the army of this state, the basis of which was now mercenaries - the Turkmens and Kangly. Such troops can still be used in wars of conquest against weaker opponents, but relying on them in the event of a difficult war with a strong enemy on its territory is hardly reasonable. They have nothing to defend in a foreign land for them, and there is no hope for rich prey.
Another sign of tension is the uprisings in Samarkand and in the newly annexed Bukhara. And in Isfahan (western Iran) and in Rhea (northern Iran) there were constant clashes between Shafi'is and Hanafis. And here in the east, formerly weak and scattered nomadic tribes began to move, surprising and frightening their neighbors with their victories. While the Mongols were still fighting in the east, it was clear to all more or less reasonable people that someday they would move to the west.
On the eve of the disaster
The first diplomatic contacts between the Khorezmians and the Mongols were established in 1215, when the ambassadors of Mohammed II visited Genghis Khan on the eve of the storming of Beijing, and could be convinced of the power of his army.
There was no common border between Khorezm and the state of Chinggis, and the conqueror assured the ambassadors that he was not seeking a war with his western neighbors, counting on good-neighborly relations and mutually beneficial trade. But, almost immediately, they launched an offensive to the west - not yet on Khorezm, on its neighbors. Subedei set out on a campaign against the Desht-i-Kipchak tribes, Jochi opposed the Tumats and Kirghiz, Jebe attacked the Kara-Khitan. By the end of 1217, they were all crushed, and now a clash between the young (the Mongol state) and the old (Khorezm) predators became inevitable.
On behalf of Jamukha, Subedei and Dzheb are described in the "Secret Legend of the Mongols":
“My anda Temujin was going to fatten four dogs with human meat and put them on an iron chain … These four dogs:
Their foreheads are of bronze, And the snouts are steel chisels.
Shilo is their language, And the heart is iron.
Swords serve as a scourge, They have enough dew for food, They ride on the winds.
Human meat is their marching grub, Human meat is eaten on the days of slaughter.
They were released from the chain. Isn't it joy?
They waited long on a leash!
Yes, then they, running up, swallow saliva.
You ask, what is the name of those four dogs?
The first pair is Chepe with Khubilai, The second pair - Jelme and Subetai."
The name of the first of these "dogs" is Jirgoadai, and Jebe ("Arrow") is the nickname he received from Temujin for wounded him in 1201 with a bow shot. He was one of the temniks who led the Mongols during the battle with the Russian princes on Kalka. We know even better Subedei, who, after Kalka, came to Russia together with Batu Khan. Jelme, whose name in this text stands next to the name of Subeday, is the elder brother of this great commander. And Khubilai, about whom it is spoken here, is not the grandson of Genghis Khan, but a Mongolian commander from among the nukers of the conqueror.
At the beginning of 1218, Genghis Khan sent his ambassadors to Khorezm, who conveyed to Muhammad II a very friendly, but at the same time provocative message:
“It is not hidden from me how great your work is, I also know what you have achieved in your power. I have learned that your possession is vast and your power has spread to most of the countries of the earth, and I consider it to be one of my duties to maintain peace with you. You are like my dearest son to me. It is not hidden for you that I took possession of China and the neighboring countries of the Turks and their tribes have already submitted to me. And you know better than all people that my country is a host of troops and mines of silver, and there is so much (wealth) in it that it is unnecessary to look for any other. And if you deem it possible to open the way for merchants of both sides to visit, then it (would be) for the good of all and for the common good."
Addressing Muhammad as a “son,” albeit a “dearest,” Chinggis actually suggested that he recognize himself as his vassal. Of course, this letter aroused Muhammad's anger.
This was followed by the so-called "Otrar catastrophe": a trade caravan directed by Genghis Khan, in which there were 450 people, accompanying 500 loaded camels, was plundered by the governor of the Sultan, Kair Khan, who accused the merchants of espionage.
An-Nasawi claims that the Khorezmshah only ordered him to detain the caravan men until further notice, but he exceeded his authority, and his main motive was an elementary robbery:
“Then the sultan allowed him to take precautions towards them, until he made his decision, he overstepped all the limits (permitted), exceeded his rights and seized (these merchants). After that, there was no trace of them and no news was heard. And the one mentioned single-handedly disposed of those numerous good and folded goods, out of malice and deceit."
But Ibn al-Athir in the "Complete set of history" actually declares Muhammad II an accomplice in this crime:
“Their king, called Genghis Khan … sent a group of merchants with a large amount of silver bars, beaver furs and other goods to the cities of Maverannahr, Samarkand and Bukhara, so that they could buy clothes for him to wear. They arrived in one of the Turkic cities, called Otrar, and it is the extreme limit of the Khorezmshah's possessions. There he had a governor. When this group (of merchants) arrived there, he sent to the Khorezmshah, informing him of their arrival and informing him that they had valuable. Khorezmshah sent a messenger to him, ordering them to kill them, take everything they had and send them to him. He killed them and sent what they had, and there was a lot of things (good). When (their goods) arrived to the Khorezmshah, he divided them between the merchants of Bukhara and Samarkand, taking for himself an eighth.
Rashid ad-Din:
“The Khorezmshah, disobeying the instructions of Genghis Khan and not going deeply, gave an order allowing the shedding of their blood and the seizure of their property. He did not understand that with the permission of their murder and (seizure of their) property, life would be forbidden (his own and the lives of his subjects).
Kair Khan, according to the order (of the Sultan), killed them, but (thereby) he ruined the whole world and deprived the whole people."
It is quite possible that the Mongols' spies really went with the merchants, but this, of course, did not give grounds for open robbery and, moreover, murder. However, the temptation to “warm your hands” was too great.
After that, the ambassadors of Genghis Khan came to the Khorezmshah, who delivered a letter from the conqueror. According to the testimony of Ibn al-Athir, it said:
“You killed my people and took their goods. Prepare for War! I am coming to you with an army that you cannot resist”… When the Khorezmshah heard him (content), he ordered to kill the ambassador, and he was killed. He ordered those who accompanied him to cut off their beards and returned them to their owner, Genghis Khan."
Khorezmshah did exactly what Genghis Khan wanted: now he had a legitimate reason for the war, understandable to all his subjects: the Mongols did not forgive the murder of ambassadors.
Gumilev once wrote that diplomats of all nations of the world should erect a monument to Genghis Khan, since it was he and his heirs who taught everyone the principle of personal inviolability of ambassadors. Before his conquests, their murder was considered quite commonplace, and the revenge of the Mongols for their death was considered literally as savagery and a sign of uncivilization.
Genghis Khan also had one more reason for war, already personal: his brother Khasar, after a quarrel with the khan, migrated to the domain of Muhammad, where he was killed by someone. The relations between the brothers were very tense, even hostile, but no one canceled the blood feud in Mongolia.
Battle of the Turgai Valley
In 1218, reconnaissance in force was carried out. Formally, the army of the Mongols was led by the eldest son of Chinggis, Jochi, but the real power over the army was with Subedei.
Pursuing the Merkits running in front of them, the Mongols entered the borders of Khorezm. There were only 20-25 thousand of them, Muhammad led an army of 60 thousand.
As usual, the Mongols tried to negotiate before the battle. The scheme was standard, it will be applied many more times: Jochi said that he did not have an order to fight the army of Khorezm, the purpose of his campaign was to defeat the Merkits, and in order to maintain friendship with Muhammad, he was ready to give up all the booty captured by his army. Muhammad answered in about the same way as many others answered the Mongols, with the condition of local specifics, of course:
"If Genghis Khan ordered you not to engage in a battle with me, then Allah Almighty tells me to fight with you and for this battle promises me good … So, a war in which spears will break into pieces, and swords will be smashed to smithereens."
(An-Nasawi.)
Thus began the battle on the Turgai Plain (which V. Yan in his novel called the Battle of the Irgiz River), and soon no trace of Muhammad's self-confidence remained.
There are two versions of the course of this battle. According to the first, the right wings of the opposing armies simultaneously hit the left flanks of the enemy. The Mongols turned the left wing of the Khorezmians to flight, and their center, where Muhammad was located, was already crushed. Here is what Rashid ad-Din reports about this battle:
“On both sides, both right wings moved, and part of the Mongols attacked the center. There was a danger that the Sultan would be captured."
Ata-Melik Juveini in the work “Genghis Khan. The story of the conqueror of the world”reports:
“Both sides launched an offensive, and the right flanks of both armies utterly defeated the opponents. The surviving part of the Mongol army was encouraged by the success; they struck at the center where the sultan himself was; and he was nearly taken prisoner."
On the other hand, the Mongols delivered the main blow to the center, completely bringing it down and almost captivating Khorezmshah himself.
All authors agree that only the bold and decisive actions of Jelal ad-Din, who also achieved success in his direction, did not allow the Mongols to defeat the Khorezm army. According to the first of these versions, his detachments struck an oblique blow on the flank of the advancing Mongols, on the second - in a straight line towards the center.
Rashid ad-Din:
“Jelal ad-Din, displaying a strong opposition, repulsed this attack, which the mountain would not have held back, and pulled his father out of this disastrous situation … All that day until night, Sultan Jelal ad-Din fought steadfastly. After sunset, both troops, having retreated to their places, indulged in rest."
Ata-Melik Juvaini:
"Jelal ad-Din parried the strikes of the attackers and saved him (the khoramshah)."
The outcome of the battle had not yet been decided, one of the Arab authors assessed it as follows:
“Nobody knew where the winner was, and where the loser was, who was the robber and who was robbed.”
At the night council, the Mongols decided that it made no sense to continue the battle, losing people. The victory did not give them anything, since there could be no question of a further attack on the possessions of Khorezmshah with such small forces. And they checked the fighting qualities of the Khorezmian army, and, as subsequent events showed, they did not evaluate them too highly. That same night, leaving burning bonfires in their camp, the Mongols fled to the east.
But Muhammad II, who was almost captured, was very frightened. Rashid ad-Din wrote:
"The soul of the Sultan was seized by fear and conviction in their (Mongols) bravery, he, as they say, said in his circle that he had not seen anyone like these people with courage, perseverance in the hardships of war and the ability to pierce with a spear and strike with a sword according to all the rules."
It is this fear that explains Muhammad's actions during the next year's military campaign.
Rashid ad-Din:
“Confusion and doubt found a way to him, and internal discord confused his external behavior. When he was personally convinced of the strength and power of the enemy and understood the reasons for the excitement of the turmoil that had occurred before that, he was gradually seized by confusion and melancholy, and signs of remorse began to appear in his speeches and actions."
So, Genghis Khan began to prepare for the invasion of Khorezm. According to modern estimates, Chinggis was able to send an army of 100 thousand people on this campaign, while the total number of troops of Muhammad II reached 300 thousand. Nevertheless, until recently, so brave, and now scared to death, Muhammad refused a new battle in the open field.
He dispersed part of the soldiers over the garrisons of the fortresses, part - withdrew beyond the Amu Darya. His mother and wives went to the mountain fortress Ilal in Iran. By ordering to defend only large cities, Muhammad, in fact, gave Genghis Khan the best and richest part of the country. He hoped that having plundered enough, the Mongols with their prey would go to their steppes.
Muhammad did not know that the Mongols had already learned to take cities well. In addition, in this they were actively helped by the "military specialists" of the conquered countries. The Jurchen Zhang Rong commanded the military engineers, the Khitan Sadarhai (Xue Talakhai) led the stone throwers and ferry builders.
And the Chinese military taught the Mongols the method of sieging cities "hashar" ("crowd"), according to which, during the assault, prisoners and civilians should be driven in front of them as human shields. The Mongols began to call khashar not only this military technique, but also this forced contingent itself, whose members were also used as porters and laborers.
As a result of this fatal decision of the cowardly Muhammad, the Mongols were able to crush the superior forces of the Khorezmians in parts, ruining Transoxiana (Maverannahr) with impunity, and recruiting the prisoners they needed for hashar. One can imagine what a heavy impression this made on the defenders of the fortresses, and how much it affected their morale and fighting spirit.
Muhammad al-Nasawi, "Biography of Sultan Jelal ad-Din Mankburna":
“Hearing about the approach of Genghis Khan, (Muhammad) sent his troops to the cities of Maverannahr and the Land of the Turks … He did not leave a single city of Maverannahr without a large army, and this was a mistake. If he had fought the Tatars with his troops before he distributed them, he would have grabbed the Tatars in his arms and completely wiped them off the face of the earth."
Ata-Melik Juvaini claims that Jelal ad-Din was against such a plan of warfare:
“He refused to obey his father's plan … and repeated:“To scatter the army throughout the state and show his tail to the enemy, whom he has not yet met, moreover, who has not yet emerged from his land, is the path of a pitiful coward, not a powerful lord. If the sultan does not dare to go to meet the enemy, and join the battle, and go on the offensive, and fight in close combat, but persists in his decision to flee, let him entrust me with the command of a valiant army, so that we can turn our faces to repel blows and the prevention of attacks of windy Destiny, while there is still such a possibility””.
("Genghis Khan. The story of the conqueror of the world.")
Timur-melik, the commander of the Khorezmshah (who will soon become famous for the defense of Khojand), said to him:
"The one who does not know how to hold on tightly to the hilt of his sword, he, turning with the edge, will chop off his head, lord."
Muhammad II remained adamant and did not change his decision.
Rashid ad-Din testifies:
“Since he (Khorezmshah) was overcome by doubts, the gates of sound judgment were closed for him, and sleep and peace fled from him … Astrologers also said that … until the ill-fated stars passed, out of caution, one should not start any business directed against enemies. These words of the astrologers were also an addition to the reasons for the disorder of his business …
He ordered to rebuild the fortress wall in Samarkand. Once he passed over the moat and said: "If every soldier from the army that will oppose us throws his whip here, the moat will be filled at once!"
The subjects and the army were disheartened by these words of the Sultan.
The Sultan set off on the road to Nakhsheb, and wherever he came, he said: "Get out yourself, because resistance to the Mongol army is impossible."
He is:
"Sultan Jelal ad-Din repeated:" The best way out is to collect troops, since it will be possible, and to oppose them (the Mongols). will give troops so that I go to the border and win a victory and do what is feasible and possible."
Sultan Muhammad, due to his extreme (his) confusion and fear, did not (heed) him and considered … his son's opinion childish play."
Ibn al-Athir:
“Khorezmshah ordered the inhabitants of Bukhara and Samarkand to prepare for a siege. He collected supplies for defense and stationed twenty thousand horsemen in Bukhara for its protection, and fifty thousand in Samarkand, telling them: “Defend the city until I return to Khorezm and Khorasan, where I will gather troops, and call for help from Muslims and return to to you.
Having done this, he went to Khorasan, crossed the Dzhaikhun (Amu Darya) and camped at Balkh. As for the infidels, they prepared and moved to capture Maverannahr."
The Mongol invasion of Khorezm will be discussed in the next article.
