To be honest, having published eight (as much as eight!) Materials about the Battle on the Ice on VO, I thought that this topic could be considered closed. It was possible to find out, relying on the texts of the chronicles, that the source base does not allow drawing the conclusions that were made by Soviet historians. That the most sober vision of the battle was given in the jubilee article in the Pravda newspaper on April 5, 1942, which literally immediately appeared in other newspapers speculation materials that had nothing to do with historical facts. That is, this event was used for propaganda purposes, having nothing to do with history, although it was morally justified in the conditions of war. Today we have to agree that none of the many notions about walls of ice, carts, three regiments that surrounded the Germans, about heavily armed infantry in armor and with axes in their hands (text of a textbook for the 6th grade of our secondary school!) Inside a horse "pig", neither the drowning of the knights in the waters of the lake, nor the 10-15 thousand who fought were not confirmed either in the written documents that have come down to us, nor in the finds of numerous archaeological expeditions, and remain on the conscience of the authors claiming all this. Nevertheless, during the discussions, which the site visitors entered, the topic of the ice cover itself on the surface of the lake suddenly surfaced. This direction, as it turned out, adds nothing to the historical data we have. But it, just like the study of the Germanic effigies that have come down to us in the middle of the 13th century, gives us some food for thought. Not fantasy in any way! But, nevertheless, it allows to a certain extent to imagine the situation in which the "ice slash" took place.
The film "Alexander Nevsky" is not without reason included in the treasury of world cinema. It can be studied both as a work of art, and as a monument to an era and its reflection, and from the point of view of how much an artist is allowed to distort history. In the latter case, a paradox turns out: if he does it talentedly, then … rather it is possible, not talentedly - it is impossible. For example, here is a very significant shot: "The eternal East-West confrontation." Solid symbols: "the onion of the Orthodox cathedral against the tower of the Catholic". But … could a knight-monk, who took the vows of the order, with a cross on his cloak, that is, a "full brother" (half-brothers wore the cross "Tau" - "T") wear such a "decoration" on his helmet?
So, what do we know about ice as a physical natural phenomenon, and what role exactly could it play in the events of April 1242? To begin with, experts distinguish between such characteristic periods of the ice regime of water bodies as autumn drift and unstable freeze-up; winter stable freeze-up; spring weakening of ice and spring ice drift.
There is no point in explaining autumn, it is far from spring. But it's worth saying about winter. First of all, a stable freeze-up begins with the formation of an ice cover at a negative air temperature. In this case, the thickness of the ice increases from below, and the intensity of this process depends on both the air temperature and the speed of the under-ice current, the thickness of the snow cover and the wind speed above the ice surface. The thickest ice cover usually occurs near the coast. Where there is a fast current, the ice cover is thinner, and in some places ice holes appear on the rivers. Ice is usually thinner under deeper snow cover than under a small layer of snow, since the wind cools the unprotected ice more strongly.
There is a report that the brothers were wearing "rich helmets." That is … bypassed the charter of the Order. But even in this case, they could not attach pagan symbols to the helmet. Gilded helmet - also looks like a "rich helmet".
As soon as the spring warming sets in, the ice becomes loose and fragile, acquires a needle-like structure, similar to a honeycomb. At the same time, its strength decreases by 1.5-2 times. The water formed on the surface of the ice significantly accelerates the destruction of the ice cover.
The properties of ice are truly unique. So, at 0 degrees Celsius, the density of water is 0, 99873, but the density of ice is 0, 88-0, 92, which is why the ice floats. Accordingly, the strength of the ice cover of a reservoir depends on the thickness of the ice, and on its structure and air temperature, and also on the chemical composition of the water. With an increase in the temperature of water and air and in the presence of chemical impurities in the water (which is why sea ice is two to three times less durable than freshwater ice, although it is more viscous and plastic), ice melts and collapses at the same time.
As you know, "bad examples are contagious." Our Bulgarian friends saw that … you can make beautiful, spectacular, patriotic films, in which you can not try too hard with helmets, and they shot the film Kaloyan (1963) about their king Kaloyan, who defeated the crusaders in the battle of Adrianople on April 14, 1205 … And there the knights wear "this" on their heads … After that, the helmets in "Alexander" are perceived as quite historical.
Under the action of the load, the ice sags over an area much larger than the area of the cargo itself, which is limited by a circle of a certain radius, which depends on such factors as the weight of the cargo itself, the thickness of the ice, its structure and weather conditions. It is characteristic that if the load is on the surface for a long time, the ice deflection increases. With sharp fluctuations in air and water temperature, cracks and openings may appear in the ice cover. That is, ice is a very complex natural "organism", and in order to deal with it, you need some experience!
But the masks on the heads of horses are quite historically reliable.
And it was with us in Russia that such experience was accumulated and translated into the dry language of instructions for the military, who had to move on the ice due to their occupation.
ON THE ORGANIZATION OF ICE CROSSINGS
(from manuals on military engineering from 1914)
Practical experience shows that the ice cover is usually thinner in areas with fast currents, near springs, above a grassy muddy bottom, under a thicker layer of snow. At the coast, the ice is usually thicker than in the middle of the channel, but less strong.
Crossing the ice. The convenience and safety of this crossing depends on the strength and thickness of the ice. It should be at least: for people to cross one by one in 3 steps from one another - 1.5 inches; in rows at a distance of twice the length of the font - 4 inches; cavalry and light guns - 4-6 inches; battery guns - 8 inches; large weights - 12 inches.
In frosty conditions, the thickness of the ice can be artificially increased by covering the ice with layers of straw or brushwood and pouring water over them. For every square fathom of coverage and 1 inch thick, 12-15 lbs are required. straw. Nastlav 1-1, 5 inches, a layer of it, throw on top of the same amount of snow, pour water and, letting it freeze, impose a second similar mattress.
With a frost of 5 and above, the ice thickness obtained from laying 2-3 such mattresses is completely sufficient for the crossing of troops with field artillery) and the baggage train. Cracks in ice are not dangerous, unless water comes out of them. Light bridges are made through large cracks, distributing the pressure from them to the largest possible ice surface. The openings are sometimes quickly covered with ice, if you arrange a floating boom across or put a few felled trees.
It is also useful to build boardwalks across the ice across the river, mark the width of the crossing with stakes, not allow thick columns to move, and, finally, during the crossing, constantly monitor the state of the ice at the crossing site.
ABOUT ICE CROSSINGS
When arranging crossings in winter, it is necessary to take into account many different factors, in particular, the ice regime of the reservoir, the thickness and condition of the ice, the depth of the snow, the air temperature, not to mention the enemy's ability to destroy ice and create obstacles on the water barrier.
Crossings on ice are usually organized when the ice cover, but its strength characteristics, is suitable for the movement of people and equipment. They are arranged with one-track, and if there is a need for oncoming traffic, then they will equip two crossings at least 100-150 m from one another. In addition, in case of damage to the main ferry, spare ones are prepared in advance.
Before making a decision on the construction of an ice crossing, a thorough reconnaissance of its place is carried out. At the selected site, they find out: the thickness and condition of the ice cover (the absence of wormwood, large cracks); the depth of the snow cover on the ice; the state of conjugation of the ice cover with the shores; determine its carrying capacity; outline the route, volume and nature of work on the equipment of the crossing. A layer of snow on the ice of the reservoir and on the approaches to it hides the steepness of slopes, the nature of the banks, areas of destroyed ice, as well as swampy areas, which, even in severe frosts, usually do not freeze deeply, being covered only with a crust of frozen soil, which is why they are difficult to pass.
To determine the thickness of the ice on both sides of the future crossing, 10 m from its axis, a pedestrian hole is punched at a distance of 5-10 m from one another in the middle of the river and 3-5 m near the banks. The thickness of the ice in the holes is measured using ice meters. Holes drilled in the ice are also used to measure the depth of the river.
Near the coast, the ice is inspected especially carefully, finding out whether it is firmly connected to the coast, whether there are cracks and faults, and whether it hangs above the water. The latter is checked through the wells. If the water in them protrudes at 0, 8-0, 9 of the thickness of the ice, then the ice does not hang above the water. If water does not appear in the holes, then this indicates that the ice is hanging and the crossing in this place is dangerous, because the ice in this case does not rest on the water. So that water does not spill from the holes during the passage of goods on the ice, they are surrounded by rollers of compacted snow.
Ice carrying capacity according to its smallest measured thickness at temperatures below 5 ° C for infantry and cavalry is determined according to the table data. Wagons weighing about 2 tons must move on ice with a thickness of at least 16 cm and at a distance of 15 m from each other. The indicated values for the required ice thickness refer to freshwater ice. When the air temperature is kept for several days in the range from 5 ° frost to 0 ° C, the required ice thickness should be 10% more, and with short thaws - by 25%. With frequent thaws, as well as in the pre-spring period, the carrying capacity of the ice cover on the seas and salt lakes with a multilayer structure of ice with interlayers of water is always checked practically, passing test loads, and at first half the weight than for good quality ice, and then gradually increase it.
The equipment of the ice crossing, capable of withstanding the cargo intended for passage, includes clearing it of snow to a width of at least 10 m, marking with landmarks, installing plates indicating the carrying capacity, as well as the presence of devices for descent from the shore onto solid ice. The absence of such additional devices is allowed only if the ice near the coast does not have cracks and faults, does not hang above the water and is firmly connected to the coast.
A well-organized ice crossing, especially a military one, is not just a path on the ice, but a rather complex engineering structure, which is served by a large number of people. Given the specificity of a material such as ice, it is necessary to be guaranteed to be insured against any accidents, or at least to minimize their likelihood. With an ice thickness of 12 cm, cavalry movement in a column is allowed one at a time with an interval between riders of 10 m. With a thickness of 15 cm in a column, two at the same interval.
That is, experts knew everything about what ice is and how to cross it even before the First World War. But what does this have to do with the events of 1242? It turns out that when in the 60s of the last century the Russian Academy of Sciences conducted a complex expedition to the lake, this issue was also raised. An article by T. Yu. Tyulina "TO THE QUESTION ABOUT NATURAL CONDITIONS IN THE XIII CENTURY IN THE NORTHERN PART OF THE WARM LAKE (from the materials of the complex expedition)", which we will present here in the presentation, since in general it is too voluminous.
There is no evidence that the bulk of the Russian army was on foot. Nowhere is it written about it!
The author draws attention to the modern natural-geographical conditions that take place in the battle area, i.e. northern part of Lake Teploe. The shores here are lowland moss bogs. There is no forest here, only in some places there are areas overgrown with bushes. The spring flood floods the coast over a large area, and the decline in water continues until the very end of summer. The coast is destroyed by water.
The average depth of the lake is only 3.3 m. The coastal part of the lake, on average 400-500 m wide, is very shallow, the depth here is no more than 2.5-3.0 m (level in July 1957, mark 30.45 m above the Baltic Sea level), and then increases to 5-6 m.
Alexander performed by the artist Cherkasov looks, of course, very impressive. No wonder his profile got on the order. But … throughout the entire movie, he never crossed himself! Even before the solemn temple bell ringing! Although at that time people were literally baptized every now and then, and even before the battle to cross themselves with the sign of the cross - "God himself commanded!" But … at that time, given the level of anti-religious propaganda in the USSR, this historical fact should not even have been thought of.
In winter, ice is primarily established on the Pskov and Teplom lakes. Lake Peipsi, due to its depth, freezes a little later. The average date of freezing of Lake Peipsi is December 18, Teploe - November 25. Pskovskoe and Teploe begin to free themselves of ice earlier due to the discharge of water from the river. Great. The average date of the opening of Lake Peipsi is March 28, the late one is May 4-6. During the freeze-up period, the ice thickness is approximately the same throughout the lake; on average it is 70 cm, maximum - 109 cm … The greatest thickness of ice is observed on it on average by mid-March. After the formation of the ice cover, cracks immediately appear in it.
A warm lake in winter mode has its own characteristics. According to measurements, it opens earlier and freezes later; and with frequent thaws it is not covered with ice at all, any ice holes remain here for a long time. In the same places the ice is more than 2 times thinner …
Natural conditions in 1242 are associated with the issue of climate in the first half of the 13th century. There is a consensus that climate fluctuations are subject to certain patterns, which are well studied and supported by a huge amount of facts. In climate fluctuations, which are directly related to changes in solar activity, the following cycles have been identified: centuries-old, secular, Brickner (20-50 years), 11-year and 5-6-year. Thus, what was the climate in the first half of the 13th century, and how much it differed from the modern one, it is possible to establish, albeit approximately.
"Motor! Knights, go ahead! " - photos from the filming of a movie. This photo, by the way, graced the cover of one of the magazines "Tekhnika-Molokoi". Documents from the collection of the Russian State Archives of Literature and Art (RGALI). Photos of working moments of filming S. M. Eisenstein's "Alexander Nevsky". 1938. f. 1923 op. 1 unit xp. 446 - 447.
It is known that over the past 2000 years, a significant change in climate occurred only in the XIV-XVII centuries, and it was expressed in a cold snap, in an increase in general moisture content, in the onset of mountain glaciation, an increase in river flow and an increase in the level of lakes … there was a "climatological heyday" when grapes were grown in England, and in the XV - "the height of climatological decline", that is, the maximum cooling and moisture. The deterioration of the climate began in the middle of the 13th century. The cooling continued until the 17th century, then a gradual warming began, most noticeable in the 20th century. Hence the conclusion that the climatic conditions of the first half of the XIII century. were close to modern and even slightly more favorable, since they were closer to the period of "climatic heyday". Apparently, 1242 can also be attributed to the warm time. That is, they were not more severe than they are now, since 1242 does not fall within the period of significant cooling associated with 1850-year climate fluctuations.
"Oh field, field, who covered you with dead bones ?!" - Answer: "Assistant Director". Documents from the collection of the Russian State Archives of Literature and Art (RGALI). Photos of working moments of filming S. M. Eisenstein's "Alexander Nevsky". 1938. f. 1923 op. 1 unit xp. 446 - 447.
If in 1242 a winter was more severe than others, this would be reflected in the annals, since such examples of mentioning particularly cold winters are known. But neither in Western sources nor in Russian chronicles 1242 is mentioned as a severe one. Since chroniclers often associated certain events with “God's wrath,” it would be logical to attribute to it a particularly cold winter. The invasions of Batu and other punishments "for our sins" were attributed to him.
Filmmakers in short moments of relaxation. Materials from the collection of the Russian State Archives of Literature and Art (RGALI). Photos of working moments of filming S. M. Eisenstein's "Alexander Nevsky". 1938. f. 1923 op. 1 unit xp. 446 - 447.
Now it is like this: "The Battle on the Ice" took place in early spring, when the flow of melt water into the lake increases sharply. That is, it is obvious that ice in the area of the proposed battle site may have been completely absent, if the winter was not particularly severe. But since 1242 is not mentioned in the annals as "cold", it means that the year was normal in climatic terms.
And from here we can draw a conclusion. None of the generals in their right mind and firm memory would not have led the cavalry army on the thawed ice. And I would not fight on it at all, because it would be complete suicide. The Rhymed Chronicle mentions that those killed "fell into the grass." We have that "the ice was covered with blood." But one does not contradict the other. There were reeds all around, and ice on the peat bogs, which undoubtedly froze through better than the lake.
The Russian army is returning victorious! But all this was behind the scenes. Materials from the collection of the Russian State Archives of Literature and Art (RGALI). Photos of working moments of filming S. M. Eisenstein's "Alexander Nevsky". 1938. f. 1923 op. 1 unit xp. 446 - 447.
Now let's calculate the weight of military equipment of those years. And it turns out that the pressure exerted by the rider is comparable to the load equal to the pressure from … the tank (0.6-0.8 kg / cm2). The weight of a knight's horse of that time was about 700-750 kg. The rider's weight is about 80-90 kg. Weight of armor, weapons, horse harness, etc.) - 35-40 kg. Total total weight could be 830-880 kg. The total area of the horse's hoof is about 490 cm / 2 (the size of the hoof fits into a circle with a diameter of about 25 cm). Considering that it does not rest on the ground with its entire surface (there is a depression in the middle), the support area is equal to 50% of the total, that is, about 250 cm. Thus, when the horse stands calmly, the load (static!) Will be distributed over an area of about 980 cm (at a specific load - 0, 85-0, 9 kg / cm2), and with a jump (dynamic load) it will increase. Since the horse always touches the surface with fewer hooves. The gallop is especially dangerous for ice - the main gait of the knightly cavalry and … it is clear why, and, probably, even for those who have never ridden a horse!
Working moment of filming. Materials from the collection of the Russian State Archives of Literature and Art (RGALI). Photos of working moments of filming S. M. Eisenstein's "Alexander Nevsky". 1938. f. 1923 op. 1 unit xp. 446 - 447.
But that is not all. One rider on the ice, that's all right, but what if there are a lot of them? And they cannot move at intervals of 10 m, as indicated in the instruction of 1914. When jumping on ice, vibrations will surely occur in its thickness, which the ice will transfer to the water and cause an under-ice wave. The higher the speed, the higher the speed of the wave. It is not hard to guess what will happen if such waves develop: the ice begins to break, and the riders - to fall through.
In general, unfortunately, fantasy has always dominated the theme of this battle. Moreover, it is not clear what they were based on. For example, we read in the book by G. N. Karaeva and A. S. Potresov "The Mystery of Lake Peipsi" (Moscow, 1976) on page 219: "On the ice of Uzmen, using the darkness, enemy scouts appeared, sent to make sure that the ice was strong enough and to find out exactly where the Russian army stopped." The question arises - in what chronicle or chronicle did they read about this? And the second, arising from this "speculation", how did these scouts then manage to overlook the badly frozen areas of the "sigovitsa"?
It is only we who think that the film was filmed in the snow and in winter. No, it was filmed mainly in the summer, including the battle itself, and Alexander's duel with the master. So they, poor fellows, had to sweat!
It is worth citing one curious passage from the "Chronicle of the Prussian Land" (Peter from Dusburg. Chronicle of the Prussian Land. M., 1997. S. 151). Its name alone is very indicative:
"About a wonderful event" in this war. It should be noted that when a war begins, the army disperses along different paths so that it can advance in order and without crowding. However, it often happens for various reasons that, having lost the proper order, 100 horsemen, or 200, or a thousand, gather on the ice in one place. How the ice can withstand such a heavy load and not break, I don’t know, God knows. That is why in many wars waged in winter, and especially in the one that has already been described, one can observe miraculous and surprising deeds, if anyone wants to take a closer look, for the army is at the end of winter, when the ice melts from above from the heat of the sun, and from below from the current of water, at midnight Memel crossed the ice, and when it crossed without any difficulty, the ice weakened and broke, so that in the morning there was no trace of the ice. Who could have done this if not the one who commanded the sea to stand as a wall on the right and left sides, and the people of Israel crossed on foot on dry land?"
A leaflet with sketches for the film made by S. Eisenstein. Materials from the collection of the Russian State Archives of Literature and Art (RGALI). CM. Eisenstein. July 16 - September 25, 1937. 1923 op. 2 units xp. 1647.
That is, the author was well aware of the peculiarities of movement on ice, rather than many modern authors who put 10-15 thousand soldiers on the ice only from the Russian side. That is, only God's miracle could help them all. And it took place in the chronicle descriptions, not contemporary to the event, about "God's regiment in the air." By the way, the word "regiment" in the Novgorod Chronicle is given in the singular. And, of course, the knightly servants and infantry, running in the center of the "pig" with axes in their hands, and … keeping up with the horsemen galloping, are touching. In any case, it is obvious that the battle could not have taken place on the ice, that this is a fiction based on the same battle at Omovzha (or Sempach), which clearly struck the imagination of Sergei Eisenstein!
That's how, that's how they had to start drowning. And a crack, a crack necessarily snaking in the ice … Materials from the collection of the Russian State Archive of Literature and Art (RGALI). CM. Eisenstein. July 16 - September 25, 1937. 1923 op. 2 units xp. 1647.
