Charlemagne is the ruler of the Middle Ages, who actually created the prototype of the modern European Union - the "Empire of the West". During his reign, more than 50 military campaigns were made, half of which he himself led. It can be argued that it was during the reign of Charles that the process of "Onslaught to the East" (German Drang nach Osten) began, a hostile onslaught of the West and Catholicism (Rome) against the Slavs and other free peoples of Eastern Europe. What we are currently seeing in Ukraine is a continuation of the geopolitical process that began during the reign of Charles. "Battle for Ukraine" is a continuation of the confrontation between the owners of the western project and the Slavic (Russian) world, which has been going on for more than a thousand years.
As a result of the wars of conquest, Charlemagne was able to create a huge empire that stretched from the Slavic lands of Central Europe to Spain. It included the lands of modern France, Belgium, Holland, Italy and West Germany. True, the "Empire of the West" did not last long, and after Karl's death his sons would divide it into three parts. The crushing continued further. However, the vector of development of Europe was set - this is the unification, the struggle with the Slavic civilization and the absorption of its lands, and the destruction of a foreign culture, faith (often together with its carriers).
Almost simultaneously with the conquest of Italy (Emperor of the West Charlemagne), Charlemagne was at war with the Saxon tribes. It was the longest and fiercest war in his reign. With interruptions, stopping and resuming again, it lasted more than thirty years - from 772 to 804. Karl was able to defeat, using the strategy of "divide and conquer", using the internal conflicts of the Saxons and attracting their opponents of the Slavs, who struck from the east, as well as through bloody terror, destroying and burning entire villages and regions. Christianization played an important role in the conquest of the people.
Saxons
Saxon tribes inhabited a vast territory between the Rhine in its lower reaches and the Labe (Elbe). Forested territory, abundant rivers and swamps, the absence of roads made their land difficult for the enemy. Some of the Saxons even in the period from the 3rd to the 5th century A. D. e., along with the Angles and Utes, moved to the southern part of the Isle of Britain. Where they, together with the Angles, became the politically and linguistically dominant community in England (the community of the Anglo-Saxons).
The self-name of the Saxons is unknown, apparently, it was different. The ancient authors, who first used this word, designating the tribes inhabiting the Rhine region, produced it from the name of their main military weapon - the Saxon knife. Sax or scramasax (lat. Sax, scramasax), in fact, was a short sword, with a blade from 30 cm to half a meter. Scramasaks were widespread in Europe, including Russia.
The Saxons did not yet have a state, a single government. All important issues were resolved at the annual meeting of tribal elders (ting). Current issues were resolved with the help of tribal charters (laws). The clan system was at the stage of decay and three social groups were clearly distinguished. The top of the society was made up of "noble" (edelingi) - the clan nobility. The majority of the population were free community members (freelings). In addition, there were dependent people (litas).
The Saxons were divided into four tribal alliances. In the west, between the Rhine and the Weser (up to its mouth), lived "Westerners" (Westphals). The West Saxons were the closest neighbors of the Franks. In the center of the country, embracing the Weser basin and the Harz mountains, lived the Ingres (Angrarians or Engerns). In their lands on the Weser was the Marklo, the place of the annual meeting. To the east of the Ingres, up to the Laba, stretched the lands of the "eastern people" (ostphals). The northern part of Saxony, from the mouth of the Elbe-Laba to the Eider, was occupied by the Nordalbings, the North Saxons.
The beginning of the war
The border of Frankia and Saxony almost everywhere passed along the plain, and not along the rivers, and was undefined. This contributed to mutual raids and territorial disputes. Attacks, robberies and arson took place here every day. Karl's predecessor was more than once attempted to seize the border regions of Saxony. But all their attempts were unsuccessful. Success was limited to the temporary imposition of tribute and an oath of allegiance from the border leaders. However, soon the Saxons in the subordinate border areas raised uprisings and threw off the power of the conquerors.
Charles set the war with the Saxons on a regular basis, methodically and gradually taking over Saxony. The reason for the war was the usual Saxon raid. The Diet in Worms decided to start a war against the neighbors. The first time Charles's army entered the Saxon lands in 772. From that moment until 804, with short breaks, there was a stubborn and bloody war. Almost every year, Frankish troops combed the Saxon forests and swamps, destroyed settlements and pagan sanctuaries, and took numerous hostages. They built fortresses and outposts, fortifying themselves on the captured land. The Saxon warriors (practically the entire population of the region) could not resist the Frankish army, which was put on a regular basis and better armed, but they waged a fairly successful irregular ("partisan") war. As soon as Karl or his generals left the region with most of the army, all past successes were nullified, and it was necessary to start over. The Saxons attacked individual garrisons, destroyed enemy outposts, attacked Frankish troops on forest "roads" (rather, trails), organized ambushes and traps. Christian missionaries were destroyed and churches burned down, which were an important part of the occupation regime. In this struggle, the Saxons showed great intransigence and fortitude.
At first, there was no sign that the war would last more than three decades. Charles' first campaign in Saxony was common in the wars of that era and was similar to the invasion of Pepin the Short in 758. The Frankish army penetrated Saxony quite easily. The Saxons courageously resisted and defended themselves in their fortifications, but were defeated. The Frankish army destroyed their fortress Eresburg, where the sanctuary of the god Irmin was destroyed (researchers believe that this is one of the names of the thunder god Thor). In honor of this god, a wooden post (irminsul) was erected, depicting the World Tree - Yggdrasil ash.
And then, which was in the spirit of a traditional border war, events developed according to the old scheme. A year later, the Saxons, as in the previous period, responded to the invasion of the Franks with their raid. Karl, busy with the war in Italy with the Lombards, was able to send only a small punitive detachment. It was only in 775 that a new large campaign to Saxony was organized. At the head of a large army, King Charles went deeper into the land of the Saxons more than usual, reaching the possessions of the "eastern people" and the river Okker (Oker). As usual, hostages were taken. On the way back, the Ingres were defeated, who tried to attack a separate Frankish detachment left at the Weser. However, this time, before the army left Saxony, Charles left strong garrisons in the fortresses of Eresburg and Sigiburg.
In the spring of 776 the Saxons laid siege to both fortresses. Eresburg was recaptured. After that, Karl decided to change tactics. Apparently, leaving the question of the complete conquest of Saxony for a more distant period - the conquest of Italy had not yet been completed, Charles decided to create a fortified area - a border "mark". "Marks" were created in the most dangerous directions, they should be a kind of buffer on the way of the enemy. Thus, during the reign of Charlemagne the following were created: Spanish mark - for protection from the Arabs in northern Spain; Breton mark - a district in the northwest of the kingdom, created for protection against the Bretons; Avar mark - an area in the southeast of the Frankish state, created to protect against Avar raids; Thuringian mark - in the east, to protect against sorbs (Lusatian Serbs), etc.
Eresburg was recaptured by the Franks. Eresburg and Sigiburg were even better fortified. A new fortress, Karlsburg, was erected. In addition, Karl intensified the process of the Christianization of Saxony. Apparently, it became clear to Charles and his advisers that in order to defeat the Saxons and to pacify Saxony, it was necessary to convert the population of the region to Christianity. The priests and the church were the most important part of the system of control over people. Charles left priests in the border areas to convert pagans to the Christian religion. Initially, the business went well. In 777 the Saxons were defeated again, most of the Saxon "noble" at the meeting in Paderborn recognized Charles as their master. The local population began to express obedience in masses and receive baptism.
The transition to a strategy of complete conquest
King Charles celebrated his victory. The border has been fortified. The recalcitrant Saxons "resigned themselves". Christianization has started successfully. And then for the first time the name of a man appeared who led the resistance, rallied the rebellious Saxons and breathed hope into those who had already resigned themselves. His name was Vidukind. He did not appear in Paderborn to take an oath of allegiance to Charles and went to the Danish king. Those who were ready to continue the resistance united around him.
Already in 778, the hopes of Charles and his court for a quick victory were dashed. Returning from Spain, where Charles in 778 failed at Zaragoza and lost the rearguard under the brave Roland in Ronseval, the Frankish king received a depressing news. The West Saxons (Westphals) rebelled again. The Saxons crossed the border near the Rhine and moved up the right bank of this river to Koblenz, burning everything in their path. And then, laden with rich booty, they almost calmly returned to their lands. The Frankish detachment was able to catch up with the Saxons at Leisa, but only managed to pat the rearguard. In 779, Karl began a new campaign. The army of the Franks passed the whole country quite calmly, meeting no particular resistance anywhere. The Saxons again expressed obedience, gave hostages and oaths of allegiance.
However, Karl no longer believed them. Apparently, from that moment, Karl decided that Saxony should be dealt with closely. The Franks began to implement a strategic plan that led to the complete subordination of Saxony. Karl was now preparing for new campaigns very carefully and they began to resemble "total war", and not the old knightly "dagger strikes". The 780 campaign was not at all prompted by the Saxon raid. Karl's army went to the very border with the Slavs - the Laba River. The Franks have never gone so far northeast. Charles brought with him an army of Christian missionaries, determined to Christianize all of Saxony. In addition, the king carried out an administrative reform - Saxony was divided into counties (administrative districts), which were headed by counts. Among the counts were the noble Saxons, who proved to be obedient and loyal.
At the beginning of 782, considering the conquest of the Saxon territory complete, King Charles held a state assembly in Lipspring. On it, the distribution of Saxon lands to local Saxon and Frankish feudal lords was carried out, a feudal system was introduced in Saxony. Also, additional measures were taken to destroy paganism. After that, Karl returned to the kingdom with his army.
Religious and administrative reforms, the creation of large feudal land tenure, the eradication of paganism were to make Saxony part of Charles' empire. The king believed so much in his victory over the Saxons that he already considered Saxony "his". So, to repel the raid of the Slavs-Sorbs (Lusatian Serbs), who invaded the border lands of Saxony and Thuringia, a Franco-Saxon army was sent. But Karl miscalculated, the Saxons have not yet submitted. The humility was ostentatious. In addition, the persecution of the pagans, the introduction of large feudal land tenure sharply worsened the situation of the bulk of the free community members.
Uprising of Vidukind
Vidukind arrived in Saxony and almost instantly the whole country was on fire. The rebellion destroyed almost all of Charles's achievements. The Saxon "nobles" who went over to Karl's side were mercilessly massacred. The Saxons, who converted to Christianity, were also beaten. Churches were burned, priests were killed. The missionary, Doctor of Divinity Villegad, who helped Charles in planting a new religion, barely managed to escape. A pagan uprising broke out in neighboring Frisia.
The army sent against the Sorbs was almost completely destroyed at the Battle of Zyuntel. The cavalry detachment under the command of the camerlegno Adalgiz, Constable Geilo and Count Palatine Vorado, having received news of the uprising, decided to return to Saxony, where he was to join up with the foot army of Count Thierry. However, even before joining Thierry's infantry, the knights learned that the Saxon army was located in a camp near Mount Züntel. The proud knights, fearing that in case of victory, all the glory would go to Count Thierry, a relative of the king, decided to strike the enemy themselves. The cavalry attack of the Saxon army was unsuccessful. The Saxons withstood the blow and, having surrounded the enemy, exterminated almost the entire detachment. Among those killed were Adalgiz and Geilo, as well as four more counts and twelve other noble knights. The remnants of the detachment fled. Count Thierry decided not to risk it and withdrew his troops from Saxony.
Karl had never experienced such a defeat - the fruits of many years of work and cunning plans were destroyed. Everything had to start practically all over again. However, Karl was distinguished by great perseverance and the fact that he did not give in to difficulties. Karl, as usual in a difficult situation, gathered all his will into a fist. The answer was quick and decisive. He went down in history as one of the most terrible examples of ruthlessness.
Charlemagne quickly gathered an army and invaded Saxony despite the wrong time of year. Turning everything in its path to ashes, the Frankish army reached the Weser, in the town of Verdun, where, under the threat of complete extermination, demanded that the Saxon nobility hand over all the most active instigators of the uprising. The Saxon elders, unable to find the strength to offer open resistance (Vidukind fled to Denmark again), named several thousand of their fellow countrymen. By order of Charles, they were taken to Verdun and beheaded. In total, up to 4, 5 thousand people were killed. Having received oaths of allegiance from the Saxon nobility, the Saxon king left Saxony.
This act of mass slaughter was of a political, psychological nature. Karl showed the Saxons what awaits them in response to further uprisings. In addition, a legal basis for the policy of terror was laid down. All who broke the vows given to the authorities and the church, rebelled, death awaited. But, despite this measure of intimidation, the Saxons continued to resist. In response to continued resistance, Charles issued the First Saxon Surrender in the same year. He ordered to punish with death any deviation from loyalty to the king, the church and violation of public order. Thus, any sin against the occupation administration and the church was punishable by death.
Charles gave almost entirely to Saxony the next three years - 783-785. In the summer of 783, Kal again invaded Saxony with a large army. Upon learning that the Saxons had set up camp near Detmold, the Frankish king quickly moved there and defeated the enemy. Most of the Saxons were killed. Karl went to Paderborn, where he planned to get reinforcements and continue the war. But when, a few days later, he learned that a large army of Saxon-Westphals was standing on the banks of the Haze River, Charles again set out on a campaign. In a heavy oncoming battle, the Saxons were defeated. Frankish sources report rich booty and a large number of prisoners captured after this battle. Having inflicted two heavy defeats on the Saxons within a few days, the Franks ravaged Saxony as far as the Elbe and returned to Francia.
The next 784 and 785 years the ruler of the Franks spent in Saxony. During the war, the Saxons were exterminated in open battles and punitive raids. King Charles took hundreds of hostages and took them out of Saxony. The villages that became centers of resistance were completely destroyed. Karl usually spent the winter in Central France, taking a break from military labors. But the winter of 784-785. Karl spent his time in Saxony and celebrated Christmas, his favorite holiday, in the Weser. In the spring, due to the rapid flooding of rivers, he moved to Eresburg. There, Karl ordered to build a church, renovated the castle. Karl went out several times from Eresburg on a punitive raid, threw cavalry troops across the whole of Saxony, destroyed enemy fortifications and villages, exterminated the rebels.
In the spring of 785, Charles convened a general Diet at Paderbon, which was attended by representatives of the Saxon nobility. There was only Vidukind, who was elusive and continued to inspire people to resist. Then Karl decided to start negotiations with the leader of the Saxons himself. The negotiations in Berngau were successful. Vidukind, who at this time moved to the region of the North Saxons, decided that further resistance was pointless. All battles were lost, Saxony was drenched in blood. Vidukind demanded security guarantees and noble hostages. Karl went for it. Then Vidukind and his closest comrade-in-arms, Abbion, arrived at the king in Attigny, in Champagne. There they were baptized. Moreover, Karl became the godfather of Vidukind and rewarded him with generous gifts. After that, the name of Vidukinda disappeared from the chronicles.
The resistance of the Saxons has practically ceased. In 785, a Frankish chronicler announced that Kar had "subdued all of Saxony." Many believed so. Pope Hadrian glorified Charlemagne, who "with the help of the Savior and with the support of the apostles Peter and Paul … extended his power to the lands of the Saxons and brought them to the holy source of baptism." For several years, Saxony, drenched in blood and covered with the ashes of burnt villages, “calmed down”. It seemed to the invaders that it was forever.
