170 years ago, on April 25, 1846, the Mexican-American War (Mexican War) began. The war began with territorial disputes between Mexico and the United States following the capture of Texas by the United States in 1845. Mexico was defeated and lost vast territories: Upper California and New Mexico were given to the United States, that is, the lands of the modern states of California, New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada and Utah. Mexico has lost more than 500 thousand square miles (1.3 million square kilometers), that is, half of its territory.
Background
For a considerable period, there have been controversial issues between Mexico and the United States. The American government laid claim to the entire continent (the so-called concept of "predetermining Destiny") and disdained a republic that could not bring order to its territory. The Mexicans were afraid of the expansion of the Anglo-Saxons. After Mexico gained independence in 1821, the American government tried to raise the issue of territorial concessions to the United States before Mexico as a condition for its recognition. The first US envoy to Mexico City, Joel Poinsett, in 1822 put forward a project to include Texas, New Mexico, Upper and Baja California, and some other territories in the United States. It is clear that such a project did not find understanding among the Mexican authorities.
The United States did not give up hopes of annexing Texas and California even after the conclusion of the Treaty of Borders with Mexico in 1828, confirming the delimitation established by the Transcontinental Treaty of 1819. Attempts by the administrations of Andrew Jackson and John Tyler to buy out at least part of the California coast from Mexico were unsuccessful. They also did not succeed in changing the border with Mexico in such a way that the harbor of San Francisco, important for the whaling fleet, was withdrawn to the United States. The emergence and rapid development of whaling in the second quarter of the century was of great importance for the United States. From 1825 to 1845, the total registered whaling tonnage of the American whaling fleet increased from 35,000 to 191,000 tons. The vast majority of whalers hunted in the Pacific Ocean, and they needed a convenient base on its coast.
Another problem was the issue of losses to American citizens. American citizens living in Mexico suffered heavy losses due to riots associated with coups and military confiscations. The Americans first sought damages through Mexican courts. Having failed to achieve a positive result, they turned to their government. In America, they have always been sensitive to monetary issues, and then there was still a reason to legally accuse Mexico. When peaceful protests failed, the United States threatened war. Then Mexico agreed to submit the American claims to arbitration. Three-quarters of these claims turned out to be illegal, and in 1841 the international court rejected them, although they awarded Mexico to pay the rest - in the amount of about $ 2 million. Mexico paid three installments on this debt and then stopped payments.
But a more serious problem that spoiled relations between the two countries was Texas. By the mid-1830s, the dictatorship of President Antonio Santa Anna and the unrest in Mexico brought the state to the brink of collapse - Texas decided to secede. In addition, slavery was abolished in Mexico, and in Texas immigrants from the United States refused to comply with this law. They also expressed dissatisfaction with the central government's constraining territorial administration. As a result, the Free State of Texas was created. An attempt by the Mexican army to regain control of Texas led to the Battle of San Jacinto on April 21, 1836, between a detachment of 800 Texans led by Sam Houston and the twice as large army of Mexican President General Santa Anna. As a result of a surprise attack, almost the entire Mexican army, led by Santa Anna, was captured. The Texans lost only 6 people. As a result, the Mexican president was forced to withdraw Mexican troops from Texas.
Mexico did not recognize the secession of Texas and the clashes continued for nearly 10 years, depending on whether the Mexican government was strengthened or weakened. Washington did not officially intervene in this struggle, although thousands of volunteers in the United States were recruited to help Texans. Most Texans welcomed the republic's accession to the United States. But the northerners feared that the adoption of another slave state would shift the domestic balance in favor of the South, and therefore delayed the annexation of Texas for almost ten years. As a result, in 1845, the United States of America annexed the Republic of Texas and recognized Texas as the 28th state of the united state. Thus, the United States inherited the territorial dispute between Texas and Mexico.
Mexico expressed dissatisfaction that by the annexation of its "rebellious province" the United States interfered in the internal affairs of the country and unjustifiably took over its territory. In turn, the American government also pushed for war to consolidate the result. The pretext was the question of the Texas border. Mexico, which never recognized the independence of Texas, declared the border between Texas and Mexico on the Nueses River, about 150 miles east of the Rio Grande. The States, referring to the Velaska Treaty, declared the Rio Grande River itself the Texas border. Mexico argued that the treaty was signed by General Santa Anna in 1836 under duress when he was held captive by the Texans, and therefore was invalid. In addition, the Mexicans argued that Santa Anna did not have the authority to negotiate or sign agreements. The treaty was never ratified by the Mexican government. The Mexicans feared that Texas was just the beginning and that the Americans would continue to expand.
For Mexicans, the Texas problem was a matter of national honor and independence. Mexico City has repeatedly stated that the annexation of Texas would mean war. In addition, in Mexico they hoped for help from England. True, Mexican President José Joaquin de Herrera (1844-1845) was willing to accept the inevitable, provided the offended Mexican pride received the proper reassurance. However, the Americans themselves did not want peace. In 1844, James Knox Polk became President of the United States. The Democratic Party, to which Polk belonged, was a supporter of the annexation of Texas. In addition, the Americans claimed California. This deserted but rich land seemed to be asking for expansion. In the 18th century, the wave of Spanish expansion reached its peak and swept over California. Then the degradation of the Spanish colonial empire began, and in California there were only a few families of Creole landowners who lived in luxury, owning huge hacienda estates. They owned huge herds of horses and herds of cattle. And the Mexican government, weakened and virtually bankrupt after the Mexican War of Independence, faced enormous problems in managing its northern territories, which were hundreds of miles from Mexico City. The Mexican government had almost no power in California. From the mid-1830s, American settlers began to infiltrate California.
The American government, alarmed by rumors about England's desire to buy California, decided to offer Mexico a deal. Polk planned to propose to Mexico City to waive its pending claims payment in exchange for establishing an acceptable border between Texas and Mexico, and also wanted to buy California. The Americans also claimed New Mexico. For California, the US was offered $ 25 million, for New Mexico - $ 5 million. The disputed territories between Nueses and the Rio Grande were to go to Texas. Such a deal, as the Americans assured, was beneficial to Mexico, as it gave it the opportunity to pay debts. Herrera informed the Polk that he would receive his commissioner. The regiment immediately appointed John Slidel as envoy to Mexico.
In the meantime, outrage at US policies grew in Mexico. Under these conditions, the country's government, which consisted of the party of moderate liberals, headed by Herrera, did not dare to accept Slidel. Moreover, the Mexican government could not start negotiations with him because of the political unrest in the country. In 1846, the country's president alone changed four times. President Herrera's military opposition viewed Slidel's presence in Mexico City as an insult. After the more nationalist Conservative government came to power, led by General Mariano Paredes y Arrillaga, it reaffirmed its claims to Texas. On January 12, Washington received Slidel's message that the Herrera government had refused to meet with him. The regiment considered that unpaid claims and Slidel's expulsion were sufficient grounds for war.
American President James Knox Polk (1845-1849)
War
Simultaneously with the negotiations, the Americans were actively preparing for war. Back in May 1845, General Zachary Taylor received a secret order to transfer his troops from West Louisiana to Texas. American forces were to occupy a no-man's land between Nueses and the Rio Grande, which Texas claimed but never occupied. Soon, most of the 4,000 US regular army was stationed near Corpus Christi. Naval squadrons were sent to the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific to blockade the coast of Mexico. Thus, the US government instigated the war. Washington covered its predatory goals with the alleged aggression of Mexico. The Americans planned to take over California, New Mexico and the main centers of life in Mexico in order to force Mexico City to accept peace on Washington's terms.
Mexican President Paredes considered the advance of General Taylor's troops an invasion of Mexican territory and ordered resistance. On April 25, 1846, the Mexican cavalry attacked several American dragoons and forced them to surrender. Then there were several more collisions. When news of this reached Washington, Polk sent a message to Congress declaring war. American blood, Polk explained, was shed on American soil - by this act Mexico had caused the war. The joint meeting of Congress overwhelmingly approved the declaration of war. The Democrats were unanimous in their support for the war. 67 representatives of the Whig party voted against the war when discussing the amendments, but in the last reading only 14 of them were against. On May 13, the United States declared war on Mexico.
Mexico, with its outdated weapons and weak army, was doomed to failure. In terms of population and economic development, the United States outnumbered Mexico. The number of the American army at the beginning of the war was 7,883 people, and in total during the war years, the United States armed 100 thousand people. Most of the American army was made up of volunteers with a 12-month service life. They were eager to fight. The possessions of the former Spanish Empire have always been a magnet for northerners who "dreamed of feasting in the palaces of Montezuma."At the beginning of the war, the Mexican army numbered more than 23 thousand people and consisted mainly of recruits - Indians and peons (peasants), who were not eager to fight. The firearms and artillery of the Mexicans were outdated. Unlike the United States, Mexico produced almost no weapons of its own and had virtually no navy.
In May 1846, General Arista was defeated by American forces. The Mexicans could not hold their positions for long under the fire of American artillery. On May 18, 1846, Taylor crossed the Rio Grande and captured Matamoros. After spending two months in Matamoros and having lost several thousand people to dysentery and measles epidemics, Taylor decided to move south. In early July, from Matamoros, Taylor went to Monterrey, from which there was the main road to the capital. He stormed Monterrey, defended by General Pedro de Ampudia's 7,000-strong army, and finally settled in Saltillo.
General Zachary Taylor
At the same time, the American fleet, with the help of the Americans who lived there, captured California. American settlers took over Sonoma and proclaimed the California Republic. The American fleet occupied Monterey on July 7, San Francisco on July 9. In early August, the United States captured San Pedro. On August 13, American troops captured the California capital, Los Angeles. Further, the Americans captured the ports of Santa Barbara and San Diego. The population of California has largely gone over to the American side. California was annexed to the United States on August 17. True, the Mexican guerrillas recaptured Los Angeles at the end of September.
Brigadier General Stephen Kearney's "Western Army" was dispatched to capture New Mexico. He was to travel from Fort Leavenworth (Missouri) to Santa Fe and, after occupying New Mexico, head to the Pacific coast. In July 1846, Kearney's army of 3 thousand people with 16 guns entered the territory of New Mexico. On August 14, the Western Army captured Las Vegas, on August 16 - San Miguel, on August 18 - the main city of the state of Santa Fe. On August 22, a decree was issued declaring the entire territory of New Mexico part of the United States. Then Kearney with a detachment of 300 dragoons moved to the Pacific Ocean. Kearney and Stockton combined their forces and moved to the main headquarters of the partisans - Los Angeles. On January 8-9, 1847, they won a victory at the San Gabriel River and entered the city on January 10. Thus, California was conquered.
Meanwhile, another coup took place in the country, Paredes showed a complete inability to wage war and power in Mexico was seized by extreme liberals led by Gomez Farias. They restored the 1824 constitution and brought back from exile in Cuba Santa Anna, whom many considered the most capable of Mexican generals. However, Santa Anna wanted only to return power and was himself ready for territorial concessions, he conducted secret negotiations with the Americans. In exchange for unhindered passage through the American naval blockade and $ 30 million, he promised to cede the lands to the Americans, which they claimed. On August 16, Santa Anna landed in Veracruz, and on September 14 entered the capital. Santa Anna marched in September at San Luis Potosi, where he was to form an army. The Mexicans called a liberal congress, which appointed Santa Anna as acting president, with Gomez Farias becoming vice president.
In August and October, the Americans made two unsuccessful attempts to seize the port of Alvarado. On November 10, Commodore Matthew Perry's squadron occupied one of the largest Mexican ports on the shores of the Gulf of Mexico - Tampico. The American government, convinced of Taylor's inability to end the war, replaced him with Winfield Scott. He was to land at Veracruz. And Taylor was ordered to withdraw, leaving the front line in Saltillo. Taylor retreated, but remained near Saltillo, provoking the enemy into battle.
By January 1847, Santa Anna had collected 25,000.the army, financing it with the help of massive confiscations, including church property. At the end of January 1847, the commander-in-chief of the Mexican army, Santa Anna, moved north to meet Taylor, who was standing with 6 thousand people 18 miles from Saltillo. Upon learning of the approach of Santa Anna, Taylor retreated ten miles and took an advantageous position at the Buena Vista hacienda. The battle took place on 22-23 February 1847 in a narrow mountain pass on the road from San Luis Potosi to Saltillo. Santa Anna threw his excellent cavalry into the section between the American army and the mountains on the east side of the pass. This site Taylor, incorrectly assessing the nature of the terrain, left unprotected. But if Santa Anna was the best commander, then the American artillery literally mowed down the Mexicans. Taylor's position was threatening, but the reinforcements that had arrived from Saltillo allowed the Americans to regain their lost positions. By nightfall, both armies were at their original positions. The Americans were three times less than the Mexicans, and they waited with trepidation for the continuation of the battle. However, Santa Anna decided otherwise. His army, made up of peasant recruits and Indians, did not want to fight. Santa Anna unexpectedly retreated towards San Luis Potosi, leaving burning bonfires to conceal the retreat. He captured several cannons and two banners, enough to demonstrate victory. Taylor's army lost 723 people killed, wounded and missing. According to American data, the Mexicans lost over 1,500 killed and wounded. Mexican troops retreated in disarray, soldiers died of hunger and disease, and froze to death.
General Winfield Scott
At this time, another turmoil began in Mexico. Farias and his supporters - puros met many difficulties in the capital. The clergy prayed for victory and organized solemn processions, but did not want to share the money. In the end, Congress authorized the confiscation of 5 million pesos from church property. This provoked resistance from the clergy and an increase in sympathy for the Americans. They say that the invaders may seize Mexico, but they will not touch the church estates. 1.5 million pesos were taken away from the church, and then the civil war began. The Mexico City militia, which had been assembled to defend against the Americans, defended the churchmen. Several Creole regiments rebelled against Farias. When Santa Anna arrived in the capital, all parties supported him. And he decided to seize power. Farias was expelled. Santa Anna received another 2 million pesos from the church for promises of future immunity and marched east against Scott's army.
On March 9, 1847, an American landing began three miles south of Veracruz. On March 29, after a heavy bombardment, Veracruz was forced to surrender. Then Scott moved to the Mexican capital. On April 17-18, on the way to Mexico City, in the Cerro Gordo gorge, 12 thousand soldiers fought under the command of Santa Anna with a 9 thousand American army. The Mexicans have taken a strong position where the road goes uphill. However, Scott's sappers found a way to bypass the Mexicans from the northern flank, and a detachment of Americans dragged the guns through the gorges and dense forests, which Santa Anna declared impassable. Attacked from the front and left flank, the Mexican army was cut to pieces, and those who survived fled, rolling in disarray along the roads back to Mexico City. The Mexicans lost 1000-1200 people killed and wounded, 3 thousand were taken prisoner, including 5 generals. The losses of American troops amounted to 431 people.
On April 22, the vanguard of the American army under the command of General Worth occupied the city of Perote, capturing a large number of weapons. On May 15, Worth's troops entered the clerical city of Puebla. The city was surrendered without resistance, and American troops were favorably received by clergy opposed to the liberals in power.
General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna
The end of the war
Panic broke out in Mexico City. Moderados ("moderate", right-wing liberals) and puros, clerics and monarchists all blamed each other for Mexico's woes. All were united by distrust of Santa Anna. There were rumors about his talks with the Americans. They began to ask how he broke the American naval blockade. However, there was no man in Mexico who could lead the people in this situation. Santa Anna was recognized as the only person who is able to overcome the crisis. Santa Anna began to form a third army and prepare the capital for the defense.
In August, Scott left Puebla and the Americans climbed the pass over the snowy peak of Popocatepetl, overlooking the Mexico City Valley with lakes, fields and estates. In the afternoon of August 9, the bells of the Cathedral of Mexico informed the population of the approach of the enemy. The Mexican army awaited the invaders on the isthmus between the two lakes, east of the city. The battle began. This time the Mexicans struck the enemy with their courage and tenacity. The feuds between the parties were forgotten, the Mexicans fought for their homeland. The army no longer consisted of recruits, but volunteers who were ready to die, but not to surrender the capital. And Santa Anna, tirelessly organizing troops, calmly standing under fire at the forefront, recalled his nickname - "Napoleon of the West." At that moment he was a real national leader.
However, the Americans broke through the enemy's defenses, using the power of their artillery. On August 17, the Americans occupied San Augustine. Further, at the village of Contrares, they met with the troops of General Valencia. On August 20, Valencia, which had disobeyed Santa Anna's order to retreat, was defeated. On the same day, a bloody battle took place near the Churubusco River, defeating General Anaya. Here Irish Catholics were captured. As part of the Mexican army was the battalion of St. Patrick, it consisted of Irish Catholics who left the American army and joined the Mexicans. The Irish were shot as deserters.
On 23 August, an armistice was concluded until 7 September and peace negotiations began. General Valencia declared Santa Anna a traitor. Santa Anna, while continuing to assure the Americans that he was striving for peace, hastily strengthened the defenses. The United States demanded that more than two-thirds of the territory be transferred to them, not including Texas. Fearing a popular uprising, the Mexican government rejected these conditions.
When the Mexicans rejected the US proposals, American troops launched a new assault. On September 8, the Americans began an assault on the fortified point of Molino del Rey, which was defended by 4 thousand people. The number of American troops was 3,447, but the Americans had twice as much artillery. The Mexicans were defeated in this battle. The Americans climbed to the heights of Chapultepec and broke into the capital on the evening of September 13. Santa Anna decided to withdraw his troops from the capital and retreated to Guadalupe. On September 14, the Americans entered Mexico City. The townspeople revolted. Snipers fired from cover, and the townspeople threw stones at the invaders. Throughout the day, there were bloody street battles. But by morning, the city officials convinced the townspeople to stop resisting.
Santa Anna was planning to continue the war. He was going to gather fresh troops and cut off Scott's army from the main base in Veracruz. Mexico could go into guerrilla warfare and hold out indefinitely. The rather small American troops in such a war had no chance of success. In winter, squadrons of patriots, as well as semi-bandit formations, raided the Americans and caused bloody acts of revenge from the occupiers. But after the attack by the troops of Santa Anna on the garrison in Puebla ended in failure, power passed to the supporters of peace - moderados. Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, Manuel de la Peña y Peña, became interim president. The solution to the question of peace was left to the Mexican Congress. Santa Anna fled to the mountains and then left for a new exile in Jamaica.
The wealthy part of the population feared a ruinous partisan war. Landowners and churchmen feared that complete anarchy would begin in the country. Half of the northern states were ready to declare independence. Indian tribes in the Yucatan, who were driven to rebellion by the greed of the white landowners, captured almost the entire peninsula. In such conditions, the Mexican government decided to go to peace.
The storming of Chapultepec. Lithograph by A. Zh.-B. Bayo after K. Nebel's drawing (1851)
Outcomes
Under the threat of a resumption of hostilities, the majority of the Mexican Congress accepted the conditions of the Americans, and on February 2, 1848, a peace treaty was signed in the town of Guadalupe Hidalgo.
Mexico was forced to cede Texas, California and the vast, almost uninhabited territory between them to the United States. This territory is now home to the American states of California, New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, Utah, Colorado and part of Wyoming. Thus, Mexico has lost more than half of its territory. Mexico received $ 15 million in "compensation" plus a cancellation of outstanding claims. I must say that in the United States at that time there were strong moods to occupy all of Mexico. But once the contract was concluded, the Polk decided to accept it. On March 10, 1848, the Guadalupe-Hidalgo treaty was ratified by the American Senate. By the end of July, American troops were withdrawn from Mexico. As a result of the war with Mexico, the United States established its undivided hegemony in North America.
Mexico was ravaged and devastated. The country was in complete decline. Officials competed in abuse and corruption. The generals were revolting. All the roads were swarming with bandits. Indians from Texas and Arizona and no less bloodthirsty Anglo-Saxon bandits raided Mexican territories. The Sierra Gorda Indians ravaged the northeastern lands. In Yucatan, the war of the Indians with the descendants of the whites (Creoles) continued to rage. She carried away half of the population of the peninsula. And American politicians and journalists, intoxicated with victories, insistently demanded to expand the borders of the American Empire up to Guatemala. However, the outbreak of the American Civil War halted American expansion.
In the early 1850s, the American government had the idea of building a railroad along the 32nd parallel. Part of the future road was planned through the Mesilla Valley between the Rio Grande, Gila and Colorado rivers. The valley belonged to Mexico and the US envoy to this country J. Gadsden was instructed to buy it. For 10 million US dollars, we acquired an area of 29,400 sq. miles. The treaty, concluded on December 30, 1853, completed the design of the modern southern border of the United States.
Mexico, on the other hand, began to recover from 1857, when a liberal republic was proclaimed. The new government facilitated the colonization of the vast and sparsely populated northern Mexican states to avoid further territorial losses.
