One of the controversial figures in Russian history is Prince Ivan I Danilovich Kalita (c. 1283 - March 31, 1340 or 1341). Some researchers consider him the creator, the man of which he laid the foundation of the Moscow state. Others call him a traitor to Russian interests, a renegade prince who, together with the Tatar troops, ravaged the Tver land.
The beginning of the political activity of Ivan Danilovich
Ivan was the second son of the Moscow prince Daniil Alexandrovich, the founder of the Moscow line of Rurikovich, the grandson of Alexander Nevsky. His brothers were Yuri, Alexander, Afanasy and Boris. After the death of their father, the brothers immediately had to enter into a political struggle. Yuri Danilovich (Moscow prince in 1303-1325) could not even attend his father's funeral. He was in Pereyaslavl, and the townspeople did not let him in, because they feared that Grand Duke Andrei Alexandrovich Gorodetsky would take advantage of the moment and seize the city. Under these conditions, the Danilovichi made an unusual decision: they did not divide the lands among themselves and decided to stick together. The younger brothers, apparently, did not agree with this decision, but yielded to the will of the older brothers.
In 1303, the Danilovichi won their first victory. Together they came to the congress of the princes in Pereyaslavl and held this city behind them. Although Mikhail Tverskoy, to whom the Grand Duke Andrei Alexandrovich Gorodetsky promised to cede the Vladimir table, tried to keep the city behind him as part of the great reign. In the spring of 1304, the brothers captured Mozhaisk and annexed it to their possessions. Now the Danilovich principality embraced the entire Moscow River from source to mouth. For the beginning of the 14th century, this was a great success.
In the summer of 1304, Grand Duke Andrei died, and the Danilovichi fought for the Vladimir table with the Tver prince. They could not “not seek” the great reign. The Danilovichi were direct descendants of Alexander Nevsky, his grandchildren, and Prince Mikhail of Tver was his nephew. To abandon the struggle, or at least not to indicate their claims, meant to admit that they and their children had no right to the Vladimir table. As a result, the entire Danilovich family would be thrown to the sidelines of Russian politics. Yuri went to the Horde to seek a shortcut from Khan Tokhta. Ivan went to defend Pereyaslavl. Boris was sent to capture Kostroma.
Mikhail Tverskoy, going to the Khan, sent outposts along the roads to intercept the Danilovichs (Yuri eluded the Tver detachments). He also in advance, without waiting for the decision of Khan Tokhta, sent his boyars to Novgorod, Kostroma and Nizhny Novgorod. The cities had to recognize Mikhail as the Grand Duke, hand over the grand-ducal taxes and gifts accompanying the event. Mikhail needed a lot of money to "resolve the issue" in the Horde. In addition, he ordered to gather an army and capture Pereyaslavl.
A wave of clashes and troubles passed in Russia. The Novgorodian rich, well versed in monetary policy, realized that the Tver prince was cunning, and did not want to fork out. Without the label, Mikhail was not recognized as the Grand Duke in Veliky Novgorod. In Nizhny Novgorod, the situation was even sadder for the Tver people. Here Mikhail was not loved, and the convened veche was outraged, the envoys of the Tver prince, who tried to start collecting money by force, were killed. In Kostroma, the envoys of the Tver prince were also expelled, two were killed. However, Prince Boris Danilovich on his way to Kostroma was intercepted and taken to Tver.
A real battle took place near Pereyaslavl. Ivan Danilovich, having learned that a host was coming from Tver, sent to Moscow for help and led the Pereyaslavts to meet the enemy. Prince Ivan was able to hold back the attacks of the Tver people until the arrival of reinforcements. Voivode Rodion Nesterovich with the Moscow army dealt an unexpected blow to the enemy. When the Tver governor Akinf died, the army fled.
In the Golden Horde at this time there was a "battle of wallets" between Mikhail and Yuri, which dragged on until the next year. The princes showered gifts on the khan, his wives, gave bribes to dignitaries. Tokhta emptied the treasury in the war with Nogai, and he needed money to continue the struggle, so the khan was in no hurry to make a decision. Thrifty Daniel saved up a hefty treasury, Yuri had money. Mikhail spent a lot, even got into debt to the Horde usurers, without waiting for money from Russian cities. The Tver prince was even ready to promise the khan to increase the tribute from the Russian land. Then Yuri, amazed by the irresponsibility of his rival, agreed to abandon his "fatherland" so that the Russian land would not perish. He withdrew his candidacy.
Michael received a label for the great reign. After the metropolitan placed a grand-ducal crown on his head in Vladimir, Mikhail Yaroslavich decided to punish his opponents. He sent his ward, Prince Mikhail Gorodetsky, with Tver troops to Nizhny Novgorod. All the "veterans" who perpetrated the revolt were executed. Kostroma residents were also punished. With the Danilovichs, Mikhail was going to fight. Initially, the Metropolitan kept him from the war, but in 1305 he died. In 1306, Michael with the allied princes went to Moscow. However, the campaign was not successful. In 1307, Mikhail organized a second campaign against Moscow. Tverichi "do a lot of evil" on the Moscow land. On August 25, the storming of the city began. The fight was fierce. Muscovites knew that there would be no mercy, they fought hard. The attack was repelled, Mikhail was forced to retreat again. Mikhail did not go well with Novgorod. They were in no hurry to give money to the Grand Duke. They also refused to fight with Moscow. When the great Vladimir and Tver prince began to give, the Novgorodians promised that they would call Moscow princes to their table.
Michael was forced to call for help from the Horde. In the fall of 1307, Tairov's army came. True, this time the Horde did not disgrace much, not a single city was damaged. But Moscow understood the hint. Yuri Daniilovich was forced to cede Pereyaslavl. Novgorod also submitted to the new Grand Duke. In addition, there was a split among the Danilovich themselves. Boris and his brother Alexander, as a result of contradictions with their older brother, left for Tver.
Yuri and Ivan have developed a very fruitful relationship. Yuri was more involved in military issues, led foreign policy, and Ivan took over the internal management of the principality. Ivan Danilovich solved economic issues, was in charge of collecting taxes, conscientiously played the role of a judge. Chronicles note that Muscovites fell in love with the prince for his high responsibility, intercession for "widows and orphans." The prince did not neglect the distribution of alms. He was even given a nickname - Good. It was also called Kalita (from the word "kalita" - a small belt money bag), but less often. Already at a later time, the authors of the chronicles, in order to distinguish the prince from other rulers, left a rarer nickname - Kalita.
How Ivan struck up friendship with Metropolitan Peter
Ivan struck up a friendship with the new Metropolitan. Peter was noted for the art of icon painting, he is the author of the first Moscow miraculous icon, called "Petrovskaya". Grand Duke of Galician Yuri Lvovich, dissatisfied with the fact that Metropolitan of Kiev and All Russia Maxim left Kiev and settled in Vladimir-on-Klyazma, wanted to create a second metropolitanate in Russia. As the new metropolitan, he chose the abbot of the Rathensky monastery, Peter, who was famous for his asceticism. The Patriarch of Constantinople had already decided to create a new metropolis when it became known about the death of Metropolitan Maxim, and a candidate from the Tver prince arrived - hegumen of one of the Tver monasteries Gerontius. Then the patriarch returned to the idea of reviving the metropolis in Kiev.
But the decisive word in Russia then was for the Golden Horde tsar. In 1308-1309. Peter went to Sarai for a label. Tokhta betrayed him, but for some reason he preferred (apparently, there was an understanding that Kiev and Galich were increasingly falling under the influence of the West), so that the headquarters of the metropolitan remained in Vladimir. Mikhail of Tverskoy, offended by the patriarch's decision, decided to "overthrow" the new metropolitan. He persuaded Bishop Andrey of Tver to write a denunciation to Constantinople. There were also other disaffected people who supported the accusation. Patriarch Athanasius sent his cleric to investigate the situation.
In 1311, a council was convened in Pereyaslavl for the trial of Peter. It was attended by Russian clergy, princes, children of Grand Duke Mikhail with boyars. Tverichi began to accuse the Metropolitan, passions almost reached the level of assault. However, it turned out that Metropolitan Peter was already able to find great respect among the common people. To protect him, the Metropolitan himself was of a meek disposition in Pereyaslavl, he tried to teach people with a kind word and example, many monks, priests and common people came. They did not give Peter offense. The Moscow delegation headed by Ivan Dobryi also stood up for him. As a result, the court acquitted Peter, and Andrey's accusation was called libel. Peter was really a peace-loving man, he even released his main accuser, Andrey, in peace.
In 1311, a new reason for the clash between Moscow and Tver appeared. In 1311, Prince Mikhail of Nizhny Novgorod died. He left no heirs. Mikhail was the grandson of Alexander Nevsky, his closest relatives were the Moscow princes. Yuri immediately seized the Nizhny Novgorod principality by right of inheritance. Grand Duke Mikhail became furious and sent an army to Nizhny Novgorod. Here the metropolitan showed himself. On pain of excommunication, he forbade the Tverites to fight. Peter had already seen with his own eyes the horrors of the fratricidal war in Southern Russia and did not want to repeat them in the north. He offered the Grand Duke a compromise option - to put Prince Boris, one of the Danilovich brothers who fled to Tver, in Nizhny Novgorod. This agreement suited everyone. On the one hand, the fatherland of Alexander Nevsky remained belonging to his family, and on the other, it did not fall under the authority of Moscow, since Boris became Mikhail's loyal companion.
Peter worked tirelessly. The Grand Duke of Vladimir and Tver was dissatisfied with the decision regarding Nizhny Novgorod. New complaints and denunciations poured into Constantinople. Peter had to go to Byzantium to personally justify himself. He also traveled constantly in Northern and Southern Russia. I rarely visited the official residence in Vladimir, the city lost its former splendor, desolate. Peter, returning from his travels, preferred to live in a more comfortable Pereyaslavl. I also visited Tver, but did not stay long. Mikhail was cold to him. Being meek with personal opponents, Peter knew how to be strict when it came to matters of principle. For disorder of abuse, the Sarsk and Rostov bishops were stripped of their dignities. To combat the heresy that penetrated into Russia through Novgorod, it was supported by the Tver Bishop Andrei, a local council was convened. In the course of the disputes, Ivan Danilovich again fully supported the Metropolitan. The Novgorod Archpriest Vavila, who was spreading heresy, was cursed. The Metropolitan again forgave the bishop of Tver.
In Moscow, Peter became the dearest guest. Ivan the Good greeted him cordially, tried to talk with him more, listened to instructions and advice. The Metropolitan liked Kalita more and more: energetic, intelligent and pious. He seemed to him a prince, with whom it would be possible to revive the Russian land together.
Revolution in the Horde
At this time, negative events were brewing in the Horde. The "cosmopolitan" stratum of the Horde - Muslims and Jews - was unhappy with Tokhta's policies. He acted in accordance with the traditions of Genghis Khan. Tokhta pursued a policy of strengthening central government and supporting cities. Carried out a monetary unification reform and streamlined the administrative system. He defeated Nogai, who actually created his own state in the west of the Horde - he managed to subjugate a huge territory along the Danube, Dniester, Dnieper to his power, Byzantium, Serbia and Bulgaria recognized themselves as vassals. Thus, the unity of the Golden Horde was restored.
Tokhta's wars in the east, in the Siberian and Ural steppes, disrupted trade with China and Central Asia. In addition, Tokhta decided to put in place the participants of the then trade "international" - the Genoese. The Italians have long forgotten about the original treaties with the Khans. Their colonies seized the surrounding lands, lived according to their own laws, did not pay tribute, grew fat on the slave trade. Tokhta decided to bring them to their senses, to establish general order throughout the territory of the state. In addition, the war with the Genoese was a profitable event from an economic point of view. So it was possible to replenish the treasury, to generously reward the soldiers. The Golden Horde king threw an army against Kafa, the city was captured and pounded. However, this was a challenge to the Horde merchant group, tied with the Genoese by common interests. Tohte, a death warrant was signed. However, it was not only a matter of changing the ruler, it was a more strategic issue, calculated for centuries to come. The peoples of the Horde decided to Islamize. For this purpose, the Khan Uzbek, who was already inclined to Islam, was also prepared, pleasing to the "international". He was the nephew of Khan Tokhta.
In August 1312, Tokhtu was poisoned. His son Iksar (Ilbasar), who was supported by the powerful emir Kadak, became his legal heir. However, when in January 1313 Uzbek, together with the beklyarbek Kutlug-Timur, came from Urgench, ostensibly to say words of consolation to the relatives of the late Khan, they killed Iksar and Kadak. This act is very poorly combined with the eulogies of Muslim and Arab writers in relation to Uzbek. Obviously, this is another example when history is written for the winners. An Uzbek who killed a relative and legitimate ruler, but placed a vast territory of the Eurasian empire under the rule of Islam, became a hero for Muslims.
Large Horde traders, the Horde "international" became the support and advisers of Uzbek. Uzbek declared Islam the state religion of the Golden Horde. Part of the elite was outraged, especially the steppe military nobility. They refused to accept the "faith of the Arabs", advocated the traditional order and the faith of their ancestors. Thus, the leaders of the opposition, Tunguz, Taz, declared to the new khan: "You expect obedience and obedience from us, but what do you care about our faith and our confession, and how will we leave the law and charter of Genghis Khan and go over to the faith of the Arabs?" Therefore, for several years, Uzbek had to fight the party of traditionalists. Several dozen representatives of the highest nobility of the Golden Horde were executed (in various sources there are numbers from 70 to 120 people), who advocated the preservation of the old order. Thus, the "cosmopolitan" trade party in the Horde defeated and partially destroyed the military, pagan elite. The common people, especially at the beginning, were not affected by this revolution. So, there is a message that even during the Kulikovo battle, Mamai's warriors professed both Islam and paganism.
The adoption of Islam as the state religion of the Golden Horde was the beginning of the end of this steppe empire. Islam was foreign to most of the Horde's population. Many converted to Islam formally. The extermination of the military aristocracy and the strengthening of the positions of the merchant circles undermined the foundations of the Horde. By inertia, it flourished for some time, previous successes, including the reforms of Tokhta, had an effect, but the virus had already infected the body of the empire. It is not for nothing that later tens of thousands of "Tatars" went into the service of the Russian princes and adopted Orthodoxy, it, edited by Sergius of Radonezh, turned out to be closer in spirit than the "Arab faith".
Uzbek's rule led to a large and bloody internecine war in Russia. In Russia, Islam was not introduced, but in the Horde "everything was renewed", so the labels of the former khan lost their significance. Metropolitan, the princes were forced to abandon all affairs and rush to the Horde, reaffirm and buy their positions.
