The last third. Painting by contemporary Spanish artist A. Ferrer-Dalmau
Louis XIII was ill. Around his box in the Saint-Germain castle, the country residence of the kings, doctors fussed about, the courtiers were in thought, the servants ran silently. They whispered to each other the name of Vincent de Paul. The five-year-old heir to the throne played next to his friends. The time of the carefree childhood of the future Sun King was melting like a wax candle in the hands of Father Dinah, the king's confessor. Soon, the Dauphin was to become, albeit a nominal, but a ruler. The dying monarch fell into oblivion, then remained in a morbid consciousness. At one of these moments, he saw the prince of Condé, a member of the younger branch of the Bourbons, standing by the bed. The king quietly told him about a dream in which the son of Conde, the Duke of Enghien, won a great victory. The very hero of this amazing dream, which gave rise to rumors of the king's prophetic gift, was not nearby, as he led an army marching into Flanders. On its way lay the town of Rocroix. On May 14, 1643, life left the King of France, who did not live to see the battle for five days.
The Thirty Years' War was the first truly pan-European war that surpassed all previous conflicts by an order of magnitude. Most of the states of the then Europe were drawn into it, and in terms of its scale, destruction and consequences, it left far behind all the previous conflicts, which now seemed to be just local feudal showdowns with the participation of 2-3 parties. Events 1618-1648 had such a serious impact on the consciousness of the then society that the memory of them persisted for a very long time. The war brought such innumerable and long-lasting disasters to ordinary people in central Europe, and especially Germany, that many seriously considered themselves eyewitnesses of the end of the world.
The armies of both warring parties did not bother with routine logistics problems and resolved the issue of providing everything necessary due to the endemic ruin of the local population. The man in the street used to live in poverty from the wars and conflicts that his lord and sovereign waged for some interests known to him alone, paid taxes and taxes, suffered from standing up for pranks of warriors. Now all adversity has concentrated into one large and, most importantly, incessant stream. Taxation in the regions engulfed in hostilities has been simplified to the seizure of all valuable, edible, movable, and then practically any property, not excluding life. The soldiers of the Protestant principalities, Swedes, Imperials, or simply gangs of mercenaries who came to their aid, despite the difference in languages, flags and religions, had surprisingly similar considerations about improving their clothing and food ration.
Sometimes, in the intervals between battles and maneuvers of armies, some people appeared who called themselves power, and with enthusiasm they began to seize what the thrifty peasants were able to hide and bury from the spontaneous expropriators. The gentlemen, intelligibly and not always patiently, explained to the new-old subjects that all this was happening for their own good and peace. And so it went on year after year. Crop failures, hunger, disease and epidemics were superimposed by one layer of black reality on another, turning into a continuous streak of tests.
Having begun as another resolution of conflicts between Catholics and Protestants, the war quickly lost its religious component. The Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs fought with a whole galaxy of Protestant states for the steadfastness of the dogmas of Catholicism and their greatness. And then France came into play - Catholics zealously killed Catholics, and this had nothing to do with the "eradication of heresy" by Luther or Calvin.
Sunset of the golden sun
The Spanish Empire was one of the most powerful states in Europe. Through the efforts of famous and unknown navigators, conquistadors and adventurers, her possessions spread over four continents, and the peripheral monarchy suddenly found itself in the top league. Throughout the 16th century and from the beginning of the 17th century, invincible thirds walking steadily, like the ancient Roman legions, asserted the will of the owners of Escorial in Italy and Flanders. Bearded brave men in crumpled armor, desperately blaspheming and praying, hacked their way with Toledo blades through the tropical jungles of the West Indies to fame and fortune. The streams of gold and other high-value trophies were reassuringly deep. They flooded first the royal court, and then the palaces of the nobility, monasteries and trading houses. For a period of time, Spain could afford literally everything - "incopesos" contributed to the implementation of the most demanding and sophisticated whims. What could be called industry stopped and fell into decay. There was enough money to buy all the best from abroad. From tools to luxury goods. The Spaniards began to behave arrogantly and defiantly with their neighbors, considering themselves the dominant force in Europe. The sun did not set over the empire, the Pope was benevolent, and it seemed that the star of Spain would never fade.
But, as Mr. Paganel aptly noted, it is not the land of gold that thrives, but the land of iron. The colossal influx of gold and silver began to rapidly stimulate inflation and rising prices. Having fed up on trade with the Spaniards, the British rightly decided that it was more profitable to get gold from the Spaniards by forcible withdrawal. Simply put, piracy. The impudent islanders made this ancient craft one of the tools for replenishing the state treasury. Then Admiral Drake and Atlantic storms turned the Invincible Armada into a heap of floating debris. The sun began to dim. The dead subjects of Montezuma and Ataupalpa were avenged. Gold, which is always scarce, but suddenly too much, was destroying the Spanish economy. The Spanish Netherlands rebelled, the English corsairs raged, and in Spain itself it suddenly became clear that it was completely dependent on the import of an endless list of various things and materials, since its own industries were not developed or degraded.
The frustration and discontent that arose during the reign of Philip II grew into a violent murmur under Philip III. Under Philip IV, the country was already gripped by open discontent. The court lived in a different reality, spending colossal sums on itself. The king often spent time in prayer, not forgetting, however, to arrange balls, masquerades, bullfights and other very useful events in the fight against boredom during breaks. The peasants could no longer suck out the ever-increasing taxes. By the 30s of the 17th century, inflation had become so threatening that in some regions of the country they switched to barter exchange. Sea trade is sick. Catalonia was gripped by an uprising, and neighboring Portugal, which wanted to gain independence and dissolve the Iberian Union, was rapidly drawing closer to hostile France. Ironically, most of the goods during the same period were smuggled in by Dutch ships. Formally, Spain and the Netherlands were enemies, but business, as you know, does not care.
Spain fought a lot and often in order to somehow maintain the rapidly declining prestige. The costs of this way of "maintaining the rating" were destroying the agonizing economy even more and faster. With the entry into the Thirty Years' War of France (in 1635), the land road, along which everything needed for the Spanish army was transferred to Flanders, was interrupted. The only way to carry out the supply was sea - through the port of Dunkirk. The troops located here were in a difficult situation: on the one hand, it was extremely important for Madrid to maintain its own positions in Flanders, on the other hand, it did not have enough money and soldiers for this. An attempt to deliver reinforcements and supplies led on October 31, 1639, to the Battle of Downs Raid, in which the Dutch inflicted a serious defeat on the Spanish fleet. Flanders became an almost isolated theater of operations from Spain, where the commander of the troops, Cardinal Infant Ferdinand of Austria, acted at his own peril and risk, skillfully restraining the Dutch. The court in Madrid was so poorly guided in matters of strategy that it began to bombard the Infante Cardinal with strange dispatches demanding the withdrawal of part of the troops from the Netherlands for action against Portugal. That is, the commander had to lose part of his already limited forces. Unable to withstand the overwork, and perhaps the impenetrable stupidity of Madrid, in the fall of 1641, the Cardinal Infant died. Such an unfavorable atmosphere prevailed in Flanders at the beginning of the French offensive.
Determination of the lilies
France for a long time watched the fire raging in Europe, calculating the time and place when it would be possible to draw the sword. If Spain, a proud and powerful neighbor, was steadily heading towards decline, then the Kingdom of the Lilies, on the contrary, was gaining strength. The period of violent religious wars ended in 1598 with the Edict of Nantes and the unification of the country under the scepter of Henry IV. The first king of the Bourbon dynasty was very flexible in government and this compares favorably with the last Valois, the neurasthenic sons of Catherine de Medici. He managed to consolidate the French society, disunited after the Huguenot wars, smoothing out the most acute corners. His policy was aimed at strengthening the royal power, economic and military growth of France. Henry IV had inherited more than 300 million livres of public debt at the beginning of his reign. However, he and his talented finance minister, the Duke of Sully, took a different path than their Spanish neighbors. The closer the abyss into which Spain was rolling, the more money was spent on all kinds of court joys. Henry IV, by contrast, sought to cut costs. Soon, the debt was reduced to 100 million and continued to decline. These processes should be noted in order to better understand what state France was in at the time of the beginning and culmination of the Thirty Years War.
The king killed by the monk Ravallac after the regency of Maria de Medici was replaced by the young Louis XIII. A composer of courtly songs and an excellent dancer, the new monarch did not possess the qualities of a state administrator, but he had enough wisdom to entrust the management of France to a worthy, talented and reliable person. Cardinal Richelieu became the First Minister of Louis XIII and remained so until his death. A man of sharp mind, cruel and ambitious, Richelieu, however, devoted his whole life to serving the king and France. While the young king spent time in the fencing halls, hunting and storming the next favorites, the cardinal cemented and strengthened his power, nipping intrigues and conspiracies in the bud. He sent into exile the queen mother and the king's younger brother, who exerted a "bad influence" on the monarch. Five dukes and four counts were arrested by his people, tried and executed for attempting to sow confusion and conspiracies. It was thanks to Richelieu that in 1628, after a long siege, the Huguenot fortress of La Rochelle, supported by the British, was taken. This put an end to the attempt to unleash a new religious war.
His foreign policy was also balanced, calculating and competent. Considering the Habsburgs as the main enemy of France, Richelieu made numerous efforts to weaken them in every possible way. Nevertheless, the country was in no hurry to get involved in the Thirty Years War. The first half of this conflict as a whole passed under the preponderance of the Habsburgs, therefore, formally remaining neutral, in 1630 Richelieu lent money to Gustav Adolphus for the invasion of Germany. After the death of the Swedish king in 1632, the cardinal contributed, including financially, to the creation of a new Swedish-German alliance against the emperor. The crushing defeat of the Swedes by the Imperials at Nördlingen in 1634 forced France to take more active actions, and in May 1635 she entered the war against the Habsburgs. The declaration of war was furnished in a half-forgotten medieval manner: heralds with the coats of arms of France and Navarre, dressed in old costumes, left Paris, who handed Philip IV the act of the outbreak of hostilities. The fighting takes place in Northern Italy, Rhineland and Flanders.
The French army was sufficiently prepared for the tests. Richelieu did a lot for this. He preferred not an unrestrained increase in the number of troops, but their high-quality technical equipment and support. Under him, the promotion of talented commanders was encouraged, despite their social status. The discipline has been greatly enhanced by harsh methods. Richelieu also fought to reduce the number of strangers accompanying the army on campaigns. During hostilities, the army was not replenished by enemy deserters, and prisoners of war were exchanged. Thus, its homogeneous, ethnic composition was preserved, in contrast, for example, to the troops of the Austrian Habsburgs. She was ready for revenge for the numerous defeats she had received in battles against a powerful rival, the third of the Spanish crown.
Unhappy start
The first years of France's participation in the war were marked by the traditional successes of the Spaniards. In 1636, their troops, along with the imperials, were able to cross Picardy and threaten Paris. With great difficulty, the French managed to stabilize the situation. Spanish reinforcements were delivered irregularly to Flanders, and after the Battle of Downs this became an even more difficult operation. The fighting took on a positional character, where success was accompanied by the French.
Cardinal Infant Ferdinand of Austria, the king's younger brother, who died in 1641, was replaced by the energetic and active Francisco de Melo, Portuguese marquis of Tor de Laguna. After the start of the rebellion in Portugal in order to free himself from the union with Spain, the marquis remained loyal to Madrid and soon received the post of governor of the Spanish Netherlands and commander-in-chief of the troops in Flanders. In the winter of 1641-1642. In various ways, the Spaniards managed to strengthen their local grouping, which allowed de Melo in 1642 to proceed to active operations. The culmination of the Spanish success was the defeat of Marshal de Gramont's French army at Gonnecourt on 26 May.
In addition, France suffered another misfortune: Cardinal Richelieu, who had served his country for such a long time, fell ill on November 28, 1642, and died on December 4. He was succeeded by Cardinal Giulio Mazarin, an Italian with a phenomenal talent for intrigue and political combination. In narrow circles he had the nickname "Brother Broadsword". Soon the health of the king himself deteriorated. France found itself in a crisis situation, the internal opposition, crushed by Richelieu, cheered up, anticipating imminent changes. De Melo's advisers tried to persuade him not to touch France, focusing on resolving the Dutch issues and leaving that to simmer in their own problems, but the governor judged otherwise. In his opinion, the shock caused by the death of Richelieu, and the possible imminent death of Louis XIII himself, creates the most opportune moment for delivering a decisive blow to France, the purpose of which would be to sign a peace beneficial for the Habsburgs. Soon, Spanish troops began to move south.
On the field near Rocroix
Great Conde
Richelieu foresaw the next Spanish offensive deep into France ahead of time. Shaken by unrest and revolts, plunging more and more into the swamp of economic chaos, Spain needed a respite and removal from the game of such a dangerous enemy as France. At his insistence, the young Duke of Enghien, son of the Prince of Condé, was appointed commander of the army. This young man, hot-tempered and even unbalanced in childhood, stabilized his character by the age of 22, but was distinguished by his harshness and impulsiveness. The seriously ill king and successor Richelieu Mazarin did not dispute this decision. It was assumed that Condé's inexperience would be compensated by the presence of military advisers with him. This role was played by the experienced Marshal L'Hôpital, who had a reputation for being a competent and cautious military man. But in matters of planning, the young duke listened more to the nobles Gassion and Siro who were suitable for him in age and temperament, who, however, had combat experience acquired in the troops of Gustav Adolf.
De Melo took action with his characteristic energy. He decided to start the campaign by capturing the fortified city of Rocroix, protected by a small (about 1000 men) garrison. Different sources give different numbers for the Spanish army. One can more or less confidently assert about 25-28 thousand people. De Melo's troops were well trained, well equipped, and their morale was high. For them, the French were a familiar enemy, over whom they won a victory more than once. The governor's army included, in addition to the Spaniards proper, Walloons and Italians. In addition, de Melo was under operational command of General Beck's imperial corps, which consisted mainly of Germans. A realistic assessment of the Spanish troops who launched the invasion suggests that they had 18,000 infantry, 5,000 cavalry, and 5,000 Beck's imperials. There were 18 guns. Rocroix was encircled on May 12. On May 16, the construction of siege fortifications began. Johann Beck's corps was sent ahead of time to occupy the castle of Chateau-Renault to improve the line of communications and did not take part in the upcoming battle. On the morning of May 18, Spanish outposts reported to de Melo on the approach of the French army.
The Duke of Enghien received word of the death of Louis XIII on the evening of May 16, when his army was on the march west of the Meuse River, heading for Rocroix. He decided not to inform the troops about this sad event yet, so as not to undermine morale. On the morning of May 17 in Ruminyi, the commander gathered his officers for a council of war to discuss the disposition of the battle - the cavalry patrols had already announced the discovery of de Melo's army. The opinions of those present at the council were divided. Marshal l'Hôpital rightly pointed out the terrain that was not convenient for attack. The land in front of the Spanish positions was teeming with bushes, plowed fields and marshes. He proposed to limit ourselves to positional skirmishes, and then carry out a roundabout maneuver in order to threaten the communications of the Spaniards. Gassion and Shiro, the duke's younger associates, insisted on a decisive battle. The death of the king and the impending regency caused concern in society, and therefore a decisive victory was simply necessary.
In the dispute between wisdom and youth, this time the victory went to the last one. The Duke of Enghien decided to fight. His army consisted of 15 thousand infantry, 7 thousand cavalry and 14 cannons. The Duke's plan was to advance along a narrow forest defile, leaving the wagon train behind. If the Spaniards, noticing the French, left their positions, then they should have bypassed them from the flank and reached Rocroix from the rear. In the event that de Melo remains in place, he will be forced to join the battle in front of the city. The duke informed the audience about the death of the king and called for a demonstration of loyalty to the new overlord. The disposition was approved by everyone, except for L'Hôpital, who remained unconvinced.
Francisco de Melo
The next day, May 18, the French successfully carried out the first part of their plan. Their army almost unhindered entered the open plain, meeting on the way only a small screen of horse Croats and Spaniards, which withdrew when the enemy approached. De Melo also wished for a battle no less than his opponents, believing that a new, even larger-scale defeat of the lilies would seriously aggravate the position of France. Both armies lined up against each other at a distance of no more than 900 meters. The left flank of the Spaniards consisted of German cavalry under the command of Count Isenburg. The Duke of Alburquerque led the Walloon cavalry on the left. The center consisted of infantry - here were the best troops of de Melo. It was 8 thirds: 5 Spanish, 2 Italian and one Burgundy. For the most part, especially Spanish, they consisted of experienced veterans who remembered the fighting traditions of Don Ambrogio Spinola. The second and third line of infantry behind the thirds consisted of battalion formations, lined up in 10 ranks of 50 people each. All 18 guns with a larger caliber than the French were located in front. The center was run by the old Walloon warrior, General Fontaine. He was ill, but determined to participate in the coming battle.
The French army was positioned similarly to the Spanish: cavalry on the flanks, infantry in the center. The right flank, which rested against the forest, was commanded by the Duke of Enghien himself, the left, located in the lowland and adjacent to the swamp, was led by the L'Hôpital. The infantry was lined up in battalions in two echelons. There was also a mixed reserve of cavalry and infantry. The French, paying tribute to the magnificent Spanish infantry, pinned great hopes on their excellent cavalry, which was quantitatively and qualitatively superior to the enemy. By 6 pm on May 18, the French had completed their deployment. De Melo, although he was cheerful, sent a messenger to Beck with the order to immediately go to Rocroix. The German, who received the order closer to the night and knowing the hot temper of his commander, postponed his speech until the morning, believing that he was exaggerating the seriousness of his situation. One way or another, Beck's imperials did not take part in the battle. The "Pear factor" has been triggered. So, 172 years later, an even more famous battle will take place in Belgium, where an incorrect or, rather, too correct interpretation of a previously issued order led to the defeat of the French army.
The Battle of Rocroix could have begun on the same day, but one of the commanders of the cavalry Senneterre, as hot as the Duke of Enghien, suddenly decided without an order to bypass the Spanish flank and go to Rocroix. The French cavalry had to move in full view of the Spaniards, and the matter could have ended very badly for those hungry for glory, if the duke had not personally returned the cavalry to their original positions, arranging a fiery suggestion to the generator of this idea. Night has come. Taking advantage of the darkness, the Duke of Alburquerque, worried about his left flank, pushed a thousand musketeers into the forest in front of their positions, setting up an ambush for the enemy cavalry. But luck did not favor the soldiers of the Empire. At about 3 am the French commander was informed of a defector from Melo's army. He said two fundamentally important things: about the musketeers in the forest and the fact that Beck and his Imperials were not on the battlefield.
"Only death will be able to make us surrender!", Or Unsuccessful negotiations
The Duke of Enghien decided to attack before the arrival of reinforcements to the enemy. At four in the morning, French artillery opened fire, although darkness still impeded accurate shooting. De Melo decided to take a defensive battle before Beck's approach, hoping for reinforcements. At 5 am the battle began with a French attack on both flanks. The ambush, on which Alburquerque relied so much, was quickly destroyed, and the forest was already occupied by the French musketeers. Gassion with 7 squadrons of cavalry bypassed the left Spanish flank and hit it. Alburquerque successfully counterattacked the French, turning in the direction of the attackers and substituting himself under the frontal blow of the French commander himself. The attack was supported by dense fire from the forest, and the battle formations of Alburquerque were in complete disarray.
On the opposite side of the field, the situation was reversed. The French carried out an attack at a gallop, their ranks mingled, and an already poorly organized crowd reached Isenburg and his Germans. The Germans went to meet them in perfect order, at a trot. The attackers were stopped and, after a fierce battle, fled. General La Ferte, who led the attack, was wounded and taken prisoner. Isenburg, building on his success, divided his cavalry: he directed a smaller part against the enemy convoy, and threw the larger part into an attack against the French infantry.
The situation in the center was also unstable. The hardened thirds, like huge armored turtles, began to press their opponent. The French soon lost most of their guns. By 6 am it seemed that the battle was lost by the Duke of Enghien. However, the young commander had his own opinion on this matter. As has often happened and will continue to be in history, the scales of military happiness sometimes sink in the wrong direction, where the weights are greater. The Alburquerque flank was completely upset, and the Duke of Enghien, quickly rebuilding his still vigorous squadrons, struck into the rear of the Spanish center, where the Walloons and the Germans were located. The onslaught of the French cavalry was swift, and the opposing battalions, in which there were too few pikemen and dominated by musketeers, were swept away and scattered.
Isenburg, enthusiastically crowding out the French infantry, was attacked by the timely arrival of the reserve, which was soon joined by the cavalry, which had come to its senses after the first unsuccessful attack. The Germans put up strong resistance (unlike the Alburkerke cavalry, these were better troops), but they were forced to start withdrawing. The Duke of Enghien tirelessly crushed the second and third Spanish echelons of infantry, and soon the best part of it, the Spanish thirds, found themselves in a tactical encirclement. General Fontaine did not dare to order a retreat, since he did not have accurate information about the situation on the flanks. In addition, he believed that Beck would soon approach the battlefield.
The French commander also remembered this, who quickly put in order the infantry, battered by the Spaniards, and, as soon as the first opportunity presented itself, threw it into the attack on the Spanish thirds. The soldiers of the Empire once again confirmed their reputation as the best infantry. Allowing the enemy at close range, the Spaniards fired a deadly volley, and then the attackers were met by a wall of rush. The French cavalry rushes into a new attack - the riders are met by a bristling wall. The place of the killed was occupied by the living, the ranks closed closer together. The thirds were melting, but they were still indestructible. General Fontaine was killed while repelling the first attack, but his soldiers continued to fight. While such dramatic events were unfolding near Rocroix, Gassion with a detachment of cavalry easily captured the entire Spanish convoy, the army treasury and many other trophies. De Melo himself managed to leave the battlefield with the other riders retreating in complete disarray.
Three times the French rushed to the Spanish thirds and three times were forced to retreat. By half past nine in the morning, the Duke of Enghien was preparing to attack for the fourth time with the help of artillery brought up here. The Spaniards, who by that time had no more than 8 thousand people, sent a signal to start negotiations. Their officers considered their position already hopeless - they were running out of ammunition, there were many wounded. The French commander, who was not at all tempted by the prospect of fighting to the last man, was ready to enter into negotiations. Accompanied by officers, he rode up the hill where the Spaniards held positions, but then shots sounded from their ranks. Maybe some "Captain Alatriste" thought that the enemy was advancing again? Furious at this circumstance, the French rushed to the attack, and the massacre began, which was hardly stopped by 10 o'clock. No more than a quarter of the Spaniards survived.
The Battle of Rocroix is over. The Spanish army lost, according to various estimates, 5 thousand killed and the same number of prisoners. Many soldiers fled. More than a hundred banners, all the artillery (18 field guns and 10 siege guns) and the entire train were lost. There are data that estimate the losses of de Melo's army at 8 thousand killed and 7 thousand prisoners. The French lost from 2 to 4 thousand killed. Rocroix has been released. This was the first time a hitherto invincible Spanish infantry had been so severely defeated. The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 ended the long Thirty Years War, but did not reconcile Spain and France, the fighting between which lasted until 1659 and ended with the defeat of Madrid and the royal wedding. The end of the war was the famous battle of the Dunes on June 14, 1658, when Marshal Turenne defeated the Spanish troops. By the evil irony of fate and political choice, he was opposed by the winner of Rocroix - the Great Condé - the former Duke of Enghien, Turenne's comrade-in-arms in the Fronde, who had defected to the Spaniards. Spain faded faster and faster, France was exalted. Ahead of her was the brilliant and war-rich era of Louis XIV.
