Central Naval Portal publishes a translation of the US Navy Submariner's Code. The main provisions set forth in the Code are clear, well known and are used by submariners of all countries in their daily and combat activities. Russian submariners have a concept of "good underwater service practice" that combines many of the following. At the same time, there are significant differences, determined by the historically established ways of development of the submarine forces and the submarine service.
War underwater
Submarine warriors have brought a unique and irreplaceable set of tools and capabilities to US national security. Through stealth, surprise and boldness, submarine forces provide presence and containment on a scale far out of proportion to their size and number. When our invulnerable and undetected submarine forces act in conjunction with the apparent and intimidating strength of carrier strike teams and Marine expeditionary teams, such a grouping presents a formidable, flexible and highly complex power projection of power.
The role of the submarine forces in this alliance is based on the advantages dictated by being under water. Whether it's cold and lifeless Arctic waters or warm and busy tropical waters, peacetime or wartime, storm or calm, our submarine forces are doing everything to remain stealthy in order to threaten a permanent presence and increase combat capabilities. Stealth makes it possible to carry out a wide variety of operations unnoticed, allows you to penetrate deep into the enemy's defense, allows you to suddenly attack, surprising the enemy with the time and place of target selection, contributes to survivability and gives the enemy uncertainty and uncertainty, which greatly complicate his planning of operations. But all these advantages and attributes cannot be achieved without the tireless efforts of smart and courageous fighters. Our submarine forces must be staffed with highly professional personnel with special technical and military knowledge, skills in using stealth, capable of acting independently, proactively, prone to tactical innovation and aggressive combat tenacity. The brave fighters of the submarine front are a guarantee that our submarine forces are ready to engage in battle as soon as possible, penetrate far ahead without hindrance, make full use of the underwater space for maneuver, seize the initiative of offensive actions and quickly adapt to the changing situation in the chaos of war.
It is important for us, submariners, that we understand the importance of our role for the country's security. While technology, adversaries, and battlegrounds have changed many times throughout history, the primary purpose of our submarine forces has remained unchanged: to harness the properties of the submarine environment to provide the military advantage of the United States. The skill set that divers should have has not changed. The purpose of the Code is to provide our submarine warriors with a framework and perspective that will serve as the basis for their training, planning and conducting peacetime training and operations. Such a secure base will enable a smooth transition from peace to war, if necessary.
Part 1. Essential qualities of American submariners
Success in submarine warfare depends on the skillful use of technically complex systems in an environment that is hostile in all respects. Although the military leadership combines the effect of submarine warfare with the joint efforts of the US Armed Forces, it is clear that submarine warfare is a type of independent war and is carried out with little or no external support. Submarine battles require a special breed of warrior who is a technical and military specialist who can act covertly, autonomously, ready to show initiative, creativity and be angry and stubborn.
Submarine warfare depends on the submariners. It is not enough for the US Navy to have low-noise and fast nuclear submarines with excellent technical and combat characteristics and the ability to carry various technical devices and devices on board and outside. The fleet must be staffed with trained and experienced submariners to make the best use of expensive submarines and vehicles. To be effective, submarine forces need to possess a number of qualities, and for this, submariners must also have special qualities. The US Navy requires professional submariners to:
- technical literacy,
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military experience,
- skills in using stealth,
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independence,
- initiatives,
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tactical creativity,
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perseverance.
The training of submariners with such skills is an ongoing process that begins with the selection of high-quality personnel, the provision of training opportunities and work experience, and then the right to temper their leadership in the crucible of hostilities. We practice this skill set every day in peacetime. After all, initiative does not appear in battle if it has not been developed and encouraged in peacetime.
Self-reliance cannot magically be acquired in war - it is practiced on a day-to-day basis when operators find full use of their capabilities. Innovation and creativity are also in demand in the exercise environment and in everyday activities, so we are confident that they will also manifest themselves in war conditions.
Technical literacy and awareness
Submarine combat systems and submarines are mechanisms, and there is no chance of success in submarine warfare if weapons and equipment are not properly maintained and used for their intended purpose. As in aviation, submarine warfare depends entirely on the trouble-free operation of submarines. Submariners know that technology can punish in its own way those who do not regularly service or use it incorrectly - such punishment may not follow today or tomorrow, but a bad attitude towards technology will certainly lead to trouble. Poor maintenance of systems and mechanisms may not affect their work today, but this will certainly lead to premature failure of equipment many years later, when life depends on one or another device.
Divers are competent and disciplined operators and take care of their equipment. We know that achieving this level of excellence requires careful training and ongoing professional development to meet the rigorous standards of a naval service. Absolute knowledge of technology is the most important basis for its effective use in battle. Knowledge allows you to check the capabilities of technical means and provides experience in the use of design redundancy and reliability verification.
It is easy to see that there is technical readiness in relation to technical systems such as an echo sounder, a weather controller, torpedo and missile silos, fire systems and a motion complex. But the concept of technical readiness also applies to other areas that are not so obvious. The combat effectiveness of a submarine can be quickly undermined due to poor management of spare parts supplies or due to illness of the crew due to poor sanitary conditions, due to injuries due to unsafe work practices, due to the need to return due to failure anything. The need for technical experience in the performance of duties applies to all members of the crew of a submarine in all parts of the submarine force without exception.
Technical readiness is a key factor not only for eliminating material problems - it is at the heart of successful damage control. Practice in transitioning to standby modes of operation and manual control of systems that usually operate automatically is an essential component in the training of specialists. Exercises to improve teamwork and organized action have always been an essential element of our success. Hard training and careful analysis of the lessons learned from the practice of our best crews have become characteristic of the submarine fleet even before the Second World War. The excellence accumulated over decades has been one of our main strengths.
A hostile underwater environment places special demands on the character and personality of submariners. The safety of the entire crew often depends on the crew of one person. Safety deep under water, in a complex machine with high pressures of liquids, nuclear power, electrical voltages, explosives, is achieved by a common culture of underwater service, personal responsibility, collective labor and mutual assistance. Generations of divers have passed these lessons down to us, and we work hard to ensure that every new divers learns them. It's part of us, it's part of our underwater DNA.
Combat experience
In addition to technical training, which is very important in itself, real submariners have good combat experience. The basis of this experience is a reflection on what has been done in the historical past and an understanding of how this legacy continues to influence today's reality. This includes an assessment of the use of submarine forces by other fleets, our own combat experience, which serves as a starting point for predicting the possible use of submarine forces in the future.
Image There are many new aspects of modern warfare that are the result of the high degree of automation in the computer age. On Aegis-equipped ships, for example, radars and sophisticated fire and weapon control systems can detect, track and intercept multiple aircraft automatically if needed. Submarine warfare, however, despite the unconditional support of complex computer systems, will continue to depend on the human mind. The opaque nature of the underwater environment, the distortion of sound waves, the presence of interference and the active efforts of opponents to confuse and deceive each other combine, which places increased demands on the knowledge and experience of underwater warriors. In the next section, we will see that ambiguity and uncertainty are indispensable companions to underwater action.
Submarine forces often operate far ahead without the support of other friendly forces. This means that submarine forces are often the only ones actually operating in these areas. As a result, after the First World War, it was proposed to use single submarines for various military operations in the forward echelons. Each of the military categories has their respective military elements. Submarine crews are small - from half to one quarter of the number of sailors per tonne of ship's displacement - compared to a typical surface ship. The small crew of a submarine must be able to carry out very diverse tasks of anti-submarine warfare, countering surface ships and evading air attacks, delivering special operations forces, supporting information operations, reconnaissance and mine warfare. Often these separate tasks must be performed at the same time.
Knowledge of the geography of the main hot spots in the oceans is important for the combat employment of submarine forces. There are areas of the World Ocean that become the sites of the most important battles. Knowing the conditions of the sailing area can be key here. This is especially true for divers who must make full use of the "3D" model of action.
The stable character of the mention of certain areas in naval history is due to the stable nature of commercial shipping routes, the location of world trade centers, used straits and narrows. Divers must have a solid understanding of the constraints imposed by the conditions of the area and make the best use of the available geographic data. Even with modern locating systems, knowledge of the geography of the sailing area is critical to the diver.
Ability to use stealth and attack confidently
Submarines are more likely to operate in an information-hungry environment than an excess of data. All the smallest pieces of information available are subject to careful study in order to fully understand their essence. Most importantly, our submarine forces regularly work in conditions that allow them to hone the skills of the crews in the use and assessment of the degree of their stealth, in a form available to them. Stealth is a property that cannot be measured, resulting from the interaction of a submarine and a sensor, and both are controlled by a person in a changing environment permeated with natural and man-made effects. There is no "stealth bar" that glows yellow when the risk is high and red when our submarines are spotted. Submariners know that the only stealth sensor is in the brain and soul of every member of a submarine's crew. The whole history shows that it is necessary to carefully calibrate this "device of secrecy" of the submariner in peacetime, so that it can be used in wartime.
Before World War II, our submariners were trained in stealth using the same techniques, which affected the enemy's advantage, and as a result, they realized that extreme precautions and tricks had to be taken in order to survive. They moved on to a continuous practice of daytime diving, to performing daytime attacks using sonar data from maximum depths without the aid of a periscope, and minimizing surface time. Transitions were slow and the time in position was insufficient. The accuracy of the torpedo attacks was very low. Too many commanders have not shown enough tenacity. At the beginning of World War II, the experience of the command staff of the boats on assignment averaged 15.7 years of service, and by the end of the war - 9.8 years of service, of which 3.5 years they spent on military campaigns.
Peacetime drills that did not meet the requirements of real combat calibrated many senior commanders in such a way, making their internal “stealth device” very sensitive, which limited their tenacity and success. Of the 465 commanders who served during World War II, only about 15 percent were successful, accounting for more than half of all ships sunk. Of these 70 officers, only four were killed in action (Morton, Daly, McMillan and Gilmore) and only four U-boats were killed (Wahoo, Harder, Thresher, and Tang). This means that the most successful commanders and crews had significantly higher survivability than the submarine forces as a whole. The submariners included in this 15 percent were three times more likely to return safely from the voyage compared to the other 85 percent of the crews. The professionalism of the attack, as a rule, is inseparable from the safe return to base.
Today's submariners prepare themselves for a future war by practicing in peacetime, taking into account the lessons of the past, striving to achieve the necessary skills and qualities to guarantee victory. Among these skills, stealth and stealth are a must. Stealth is more than the quietness of the ship. It includes actions and activities that are performed in the order most appropriate for the task at hand in order to maximize benefits with the least risk. Stealth means more than protecting yourself from detection. Subtlety is the inability to identify and classify a boat even after being discovered. Stealth also consists in the use of methods that prevent the determination of the location of the boat, even if it is detected and classified. Submariners should strive to ensure that all of these tools are used, because war may require the ship and the crew to be at risk, as a result of which the ship will be discovered, and then the survivability of the boat will depend on how the crew uses all possible means and methods available in such an environment.
Consider the example of a Marine Corps sniper. A sniper in a Ghillie camouflage suit is almost invisible. Indeed, in many cases, the sniper's secrecy lies not in the desire to avoid detection, but in the desire to avoid identification. Sometimes, when new snipers are introduced to the training course, the cadets are surprised to find that the "bush" next to which they were in the field for half an hour is in fact a deadly shooter. Divers have at their disposal the same variety of stealth options and the same skill and experience in using each of them.
Image During World War I, Britain landed troops at Gallipoli in an attempt to break through to the Black Sea and to Russia, thereby separating the Ottoman Empire in Asia from the Axis states in Europe. To assist the landing in Gallipoli, submarines entered the Sea of Marmara to hold down the actions of Turkish shipping, including in the port of Constantinople in the eastern part of the sea. These actions, undertaken for the first time in 20 years in the history of the combat use of submarines, included a full range of tasks: overcoming a minefield in narrowness, shelling, landing swimmers for sabotage against coastal targets and on railway tracks, torpedo attacks by ships, disembarking and receiving scouts on board. and the classic tasks of observation and reporting. Even at this early stage, submariners instinctively understood the importance of secrecy. As a classic example of methods used to preserve secrecy, the fact of placing buoys with a broomstick, simulating periscopes, is given. These fake periscopes were supposed to attract the attention of Turkish destroyers, who, going out to attack the "submarine", unwittingly fall into a trap, opening the side of a real submarine, ready for a torpedo attack. Creativity, innovation and cunning in organizing an attack are the cornerstone of a diver's training.
Autonomy
Since the nature of the operations of the American submarine forces presupposes a long stay at remote lines, of course, the submarine forces must be autonomous, and the crews must proceed from the stocks that are on board. Autonomy really depends on careful preparation, creative repairs in conditions of limited opportunities. The care with which the storekeeper fills the lockers is as much a factor in the reliability of the sub as the skill of a turner with a lathe or a technician with a soldering iron. In addition, daily proper maintenance reduces the problem of technical wear and tear and allows submarine forces to carry out planned operations without unscheduled outside assistance.
Submariners know that each entry into the base provides the enemy with a starting point, is a signal for reconnaissance. Each service call takes time from the task. Every moment with a faulty system reduces survivability and reliability, leading to greater danger to the ship. There must be specific reasons for unplanned changes in routes and tasks, unplanned external assistance. Such reasons arise both in peacetime and in wartime. To avoid the reasons for an unscheduled service call means to complicate the enemy's reconnaissance task. In addition, by following a planned schedule of actions, the divers allow other forces to stick to their plans. All experienced divers know how troublesome it is to go out to sea instead of another submarine, which at the last minute due to technical problems could not do it. The less preparation time, the less effective basic maintenance time, the higher the chances of a task failure, a waste of time for training. The most important quality of submariners is the ability to act autonomously and independently: to minimize the risk of problems by thoroughly servicing equipment and operating it competently, constantly improving the ability to eliminate problems that have arisen with minimal deviation from operational plans.
Willingness to take the lead
Submarine warfare, by its very nature, is fought at a considerable distance and with limited communication capabilities. In addition, submariners often have the opportunity to gain a deeper understanding of the position, place and nature of the forces, which is not always available to the command. It is important that submarine commanders understand that they have the freedom to choose and act based on the information they receive at distant positions. As a result, the command determines the priorities and communicates the "commander's plan", and the further depends on the initiative and decision of the submarine commander. This freedom of action allows the commander of the submarine to make quick decisions in a rapidly changing environment in order to best meet the intention of the leadership.
Developing self-confidence in the submarine commander is critical to the overall capability of the US submarine force to achieve the expected result. Initiative is trained and expected during combat training and on long journeys in peacetime, passed in the crew from senior to junior as they gain experience and maturity. Submariners are well known for their ability to push any initiative through the ranks. The initiative needs to be constantly honed.
There is no room for mistakes in the operation of submarines, especially in a combat situation. That is why the submarine fleet has long been using a system of training programs, advanced training on submarines and rewarding the best. In 1924, a few years after the pilots introduced the insignia - wings, the submarine forces introduced their own insignia - a dolphin to indicate the qualifications of a specialist in submarines. Part of the mandatory and necessary training for all submariners is a scrupulous study of their ship and all systems so that all crew members can take all necessary measures in any emergency situation that may arise during a battle, accident or daily activity.
Divers are expected to be proactive with deep technical knowledge. Just as the commanders of submarines must take a proactive decision on the tactical actions of their ship, so each member of the crew must take the initiative in carrying out their duties. Initiative is the foundation of combat capability, an essential element of life on a submarine.
Image If a command is given to put the rudder to the left for laying on a new course, and the junior helmsman sees that he will quickly enter the course by shifting the rudder to the right, he must report this. This gives the commander the opportunity to correct his order, unless the left turn was justified. The submarine commander welcomes this initiative as it shows that even one of the youngest sailors on the ship has a head and is thinking. This kind of collaboration is a boon to the ship and is a sign of a successful underwater service.
Tactical creativity and innovation
Demonstration of tactical novelties became a habit of submariners. In the history of submarine warfare, real combat has always been different from what was expected before it began. The rules are constantly changing. Prior to the attack on Pearl Harbor, American submarines were preparing to operate in accordance with rules that require warning any civilian ship before attacking. Six hours after the attack on Pearl Harbor, COMSUBPAC (Command of the Submarine Force in the Pacific) received an order from the Maritime Department to "Initiate an unlimited air and submarine war against Japan." This required a quick adjustment to the operational use of submarines and the way they performed their combat missions.
As already mentioned, submariners are opposed by anti-submarine forces with much greater capabilities, which gives the anti-submarine forces self-confidence, and makes the submariners doubt their stealth. Winston Churchill, describing the history of World War II, recalls how he was at sea in 1938, where he saw how effective sonar was in finding submarines. He notes that he was surprised at the "clarity and clarity" of the signal, as if he were "one of those creatures asking for destruction." He lamented later: "Without a doubt, this time I overestimated their achievements, forgetting for a moment how vast the sea is." It is impossible to know what changes await those who go to sea for a combat operation, but submariners must clearly understand that tactics, rules and the military situation will be different than they expected, and that they will have to adapt to the changes or expose themselves and their ships dangerous risk.
Tactical innovations should be applied on every ship, in every division, and discussed in every wardroom. The idea of the Eklund test site was born at sea, and then was confirmed and refined by the teachers of the school of submariners. The idea of quickly reloading torpedo tubes during combat rather than after exiting was developed and tested by a young torpedo officer at Parche during World War II and was critical to the success of a submarine attack on a Japanese convoy on July 31, 1944. At night, Red Ramage, on the surface, penetrated the center of the column and, left alone on the bridge, fired 19 torpedoes in 48 minutes, becoming the only surviving cavalier of the Medal of Honor among the submariners.
"Tactical innovations" are not necessarily limited to combat. In 1972, Barb left Guam, despite being notified of an impending typhoon an hour later, to make a 300-mile dash in an attempt to rescue eight B-52 crew members who had crashed in the ocean shortly after taking off from Andersen AFB. Severe rough seas forced all other vessels to leave the search area, but the Barb crew took the initiative, as a result of which they were able to lift 6 pilots on board, despite the 40-foot waves. Leaving only the conning tower open, the watch tied itself to the fence, and six men in a solid hull were ready to draw in exhausted and wounded pilots from the surface of the sea. The torpedo chief, who sailed to the first group of lifeboats to transfer the end, was awarded the Navy and Marine Corps Medal for heroism in rescue. This kind of creativity on a submarine or other underwater system will always be important, but divers should practice it regularly so as not to depend on the circumstances.
Image The need for tactical innovation will only grow in the future with the introduction of new underwater technologies, especially unmanned systems. The need for coordination between subsea systems is becoming more and more important. Submariners are navy specialists in "submarine war" or underwater warfare. The society is responsible for the full provision of these activities, the provision of a complete and coordinated set of funds. As pilots comply with certain rules for avoiding aircraft collisions, and surface forces have established rules for preventing collisions between ships, submariners must comply with certain requirements that govern the use of underwater spaces - including avoiding mutual interference, maneuvering, and managing underwater systems in the best way.
Unmanned Submarine Fleets (UUVs) are a new and rapidly growing part of the US submarine force, and it is essential that growth is smooth and harmonious. For example, the development of UUVs may require the emergence of new personnel specialists, knowledge of the operation of UUVs may become part of the training program for specialists of the already present branches of the forces. UUVs can be placed on board and used by the crews of other combat platforms (submarines, ships, coastal bases). Or UUVs can be an organic part of the ship's systems. Here are some of the most challenging issues that divers will have to face and tackle in the coming years. One thing is certain: it is certain that in the near future it will be necessary to define and professionally develop a cadre of a group of personnel to service UUVs and related systems. Submariners who are currently submarine crews should be part of this team.
Offensive and angry
In the depths of the seas, submarine warfare is likely to continue to be about exchanging and dodging attacks. The success of submarine forces in the past has been built on tenacity and the will to keep attacking over and over again until the target is hit or the opportunity to attack is irretrievably lost. Mush Morton once said to Dick O'Kane after a long chain of attacks: "Perseverance, Dick. Stay with the bastard until he sinks." Such aggressiveness was essential for the effective conduct of underwater combat operations. A significant advantage is gained by someone who knows how to use the chaos and disorder that come after the usual calm. Nerves are on edge, and sailors - just like people - will make decisions under the influence of emotions. It can also be used for good.
For the sake of a common goal, strength, audacity and courage are limited because it is generally recognized: the more order and discipline in joint actions, the better. However, this interdependence and joint effectiveness is suitable for surface forces, but does not work in the underwater world. Surface forces and air forces create "concentration" and "power", but this does not apply to submarines. The submarine forces act to achieve a common goal, coordinating their actions with the rest of the naval forces, and the submarines participate in the joint actions of the group, but it is best for them to act independently for maximum effect. Coordination and orderliness require time and constant communication, and this is exactly what the submarine forces do not have, which sacrifice themselves in order to inflict damage on the enemy. The goal of the submarine forces is to operate on the front lines in such a way as to create and maintain in the mind of the enemy a sense of disorder, vulnerability, chaos and uncertainty.
What character traits a submariner should have is still being discussed, but perseverance and aggressiveness must be present. This does not mean that in times of peace it is worth taking the risks that are possible in times of war. But it must be said that the creative application of perseverance within the appropriate limits in daily exercises or on long voyages is acceptable and expected.
When Operation Desert Storm was being prepared, Pittsburgh Commander Captain 2nd Rank Chip Griffiths was engaged in inter-trip repairs of his ship and did not plan to participate in battles. As one of the few vertical-launch missile submarines in the Pittsburgh submarine fleet, TLAM fell out of the clip. Griffiths, with the will and tenacity that characterizes most commanders in the history of submarine forces, gathered his wardroom and repair managers and asked: "What is everyone going to do to get this ship on the line of fire at the right time?" Infecting the entire crew and maintenance crews with creative energy, he was able to complete repairs early, load missiles, and complete operational deployment before the operation began. This is persistence. This is a kind of reluctance to fail, which is typical for most divers.
The presence of exceptionally talented and well-trained personnel is a necessary, but not the only condition for the success of submarine forces. The submarine force must be equipped with the latest technology to effectively and fully contribute to national security. The next section examines the benefits provided by weapons and equipment for successful application in the depths of the oceans.
