With the outbreak of the First World War, all the armies of the European monarchies were led by their rulers or heirs to the throne. Only two of the belligerent monarchies were exceptions. Franz Joseph I, already at the ripe old age of 84, appointed Archduke Friedrich of Austria the supreme commander-in-chief. But the appointment in the Russian Empire of the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich (by the way, the same age as Friedrich) looks, indeed, by no means an indisputable step.
First of all, because Emperor Nicholas II himself could lead the army. The high command in the initial period of the war of the Grand Duke, and not the emperor, can perhaps be explained by only one reason, which is emphasized by contemporaries: the Russian Empire did not have a more worthy, and most importantly, popular candidate for this position …
Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich the Younger was born on November 6, 1856. His father was Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich the Elder, the third son of Emperor Nikolai I, and his mother was the German princess Alexandra Petrovna of Oldenburg. The marriage turns out to be unhappy, the parents constantly quarrel, cheat on each other and, in the end, get divorced. Family scandals affect the character of the future commander in chief. On the one hand, he makes an impression with his firmness and decisiveness, even bordering on rudeness, but at the same time with fairness and nobility. On the other hand, he is completely devoid of an important quality for a commander - composure.
At the age of fifteen, the young Grand Duke entered the Nikolaev Engineering School as a cadet, a year later graduated with the rank of second lieutenant. The ordinary service of the august officer does not suit him. The only one of all the Romanovs, in 1876 he graduated from the Nikolaev Academy of the General Staff, and in the first category, with a small silver medal.
With the beginning of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. the Grand Duke is assigned to the division of General M. I. Dragomirov, an outstanding military theorist who revived the study of A. V. Suvorov. The assistant to the chief of this division was General M. D. Skobelev, one of the most talented Russian military leaders.
Nikolai Nikolaevich the Younger takes part in the crossing of the Danube, the storming of the Sistov heights and the Shipka Pass. He was awarded the Order of St. George of the 4th degree and the golden weapon.
At the end of the Russian-Turkish war, the Grand Duke continued his cavalry career. Other Romanovs, as well as the heir to the throne, the future Emperor Nicholas II, serve in the Life Guards Hussar Regiment under his command. The grand-ducal youth respectfully calls Nikolai Nikolaevich "The Terrible Uncle." At the same time, the older princes scornfully call their rather unsociable relative "Nikolasha".
One of the guards cavalry officers recalls the Grand Duke in the following way: “It was a very special face of a very great chief-leader - an imperious, stern, open, decisive and at the same time proud face.
The gaze of his eyes was intent, predatory, as if all-seeing and unforgiving. The movements are confident and relaxed, the voice is harsh, loud, a little guttural, accustomed to commanding and shouting out words with a kind of half-contemptuous negligence
Nikolai Nikolaevich was a guard from head to toe … His prestige at that time was enormous. Everyone was in awe of him, and it was not easy to please him during the teachings."
In 1895, Nikolai Nikolaevich was appointed inspector general of the cavalry. He remained in this position until the summer of 1905. In many respects, it was the Grand Duke who was responsible for preparing the Russian cavalry for the First World War. In this respect, he achieves outstanding results and makes gross mistakes.
Indeed, before the start of the Great War, the Russian cavalry was perfectly trained at the lowest tactical level. The equestrian structure of the army was significantly improved, the Officer Cavalry School was reorganized, which gave such a commander as A. A. Brusilov.
However, with all the advantages of individual training, the cavalry, for objective reasons, could not effectively interact with the infantry and artillery. The training of the troops was notable for stereotyped, gravitated towards the notorious Prussian drill. The possession of melee weapons and horse riding were given much more attention than shooting training. The priority of the tactical training of the cavalry was considered to be the development of "shock" (direct massive attack with the aim of destroying the enemy in hand-to-hand combat), which was outdated in the conditions of trench warfare. Much less importance was attached to such necessary components of the tactical training of cavalry units and subunits, such as maneuvering, bypassing, pursuit and reconnaissance.
In 1900, the Grand Duke became a general from the cavalry - only the rank of Field Marshal was higher. And already at the beginning of the 20th century, Nikolai Nikolaevich has a chance to prove himself in the war. Twice he was offered the post of commander of the Russian army in the war with the Japanese - and twice he refused. For the first time - due to a conflict with the governor of the emperor in the Far East, Admiral E. I. Alekseev. For the second time, the Grand Duke is afraid to ruin his reputation in an unpopular war.
After the end of the war, Nikolai Nikolayevich initiated the creation of the State Defense Council - a special governing body designed to coordinate the reform of the armed forces. He also becomes the chairman of the Council.
The activities of the National Defense Council lead to the removal of the General Staff from the control of the War Ministry. The Grand Duke plans to create a General Staff on the model of the German one. The issues of mobilization and strategic planning are completely removed from the jurisdiction of the Minister of War. This artificial division has impeded the planning of military reform in Russia for several years. Only in 1909 did the General Staff return to the War Ministry. This reorganization is carried out by the new Minister of War, General V. A. Sukhomlinov.
Another task of the National Defense Council is to cleanse the command staff. Under the Council, a High Attestation Commission is established, which considers candidates for general posts and weeds out generals from the army who have shown themselves ineptly in the service.
In addition, Nikolai Nikolaevich (as the commander of the guard) transfers to the elite guards units a number of army officers who distinguished themselves during the Russo-Japanese war. The necessary rotation of personnel and the promotion of talented commanders is the merit of the Grand Duke
However, the National Defense Council did not exist for long. Interference in the affairs of the military and naval ministries, conflicts with the State Duma, disunity of actions of various structures of military administration lead to the abolition of this body in 1909.
Along with the solution of military problems, Nikolai Nikolaevich played a significant role in the period of the first Russian revolution of 1905-1907. It was he who had a decisive influence on the emperor in the direction of concessions to the opposition. The Grand Duke, commander of the guard and the capital's military district, does not justify the secret hopes of Nicholas II, who intended to endow the uncle, famous for his decisiveness, with dictatorial powers for the uncompromising suppression of the rebels. And none other than Nikolai Nikolaevich, in fact, forces the reigning nephew to sign the Manifesto on October 17, allegedly threatening to shoot himself if he refuses. Of course, this document, which gave Russian society broad rights and freedoms, actually represented a certain concession to the circles of the liberal opposition, which dreamed of establishing a constitutional monarchy in Russia on the British model and placing the autocrat under its full control.
At this time, the failed dictator is closely approaching the liberal opposition. The Grand Duke's Freemasonry (from 1907, under the influence of his wife, he became a member of the Martinist lodge) and his pro-French orientation pushed to this
Moreover, many of the liberals are Freemasons and hope to rebuild the Russian Empire along Western lines.
A convinced enemy of Germany, the Grand Duke considers the war with the Second Reich not only inevitable, but also necessary for Russia. Hence his desire to strengthen the Franco-Russian alliance - after all, the French give a loan to the tsarist government to suppress the revolution. The allies, in turn, long before the war, wish to see only the sovereign's uncle as the Supreme Commander-in-Chief.
And it is not without reason that since 1903, in the event of a major European war, Nikolai Nikolaevich has been the main candidate for the post of first commander of the armies of the German front, and then the Supreme Commander-in-Chief.
However, with the arrival in 1909 to the post of Minister of War V. A. Sukhomlinov, the Grand Duke is losing his influence. And Nicholas II himself cannot forgive his uncle for pressure when signing the Manifesto on October 17.
As a result, by 1914, Sukhomlinov completely pushes the Grand Duke away from the highest positions in military administration, especially since the prestige of Nikolai Nikolaevich in the eyes of the emperor also noticeably decreases. The Minister of War reduces his role in the upcoming war to the level of just the commander of the 6th Army, which will have to protect the capital from a possible landing of Germans from the Baltic. Sukhomlinov himself plans to become chief of staff under the emperor - the Supreme Commander-in-Chief.
However, the hopes of the Minister of War do not come true. The death in 1911 of Prime Minister P. A. Stolypin, who spoke sharply about the "disastrous for Russia" militarism of the Grand Duke, clear progress in rearmament of the army weaken the position of the party of "pigeons", which includes Sukhomlinov. Foreign Minister Anglophile S. D. Sazonov, "hawks" from the military, rallied around the figure of Nikolai Nikolaevich, Francophiles from the State Duma overpower the emperor's peacefulness and the resistance of the minister of war.
Likewise, Sukhomlinov's plan, which assumes that the emperor will become the Supreme Commander-in-Chief, is doomed to failure. Nicholas II, being convinced in 1914 of the short duration of the war, then hesitated to take this post. Moreover, the Council of Ministers is unanimously opposed to such a decision (with the exception of the Minister of War). Meanwhile, both his immense popularity among the officer corps and the obvious disposition of the French allies speak in favor of the Grand Duke. Finally, the king wants to avoid disobedience and intrigue among the generals. As a result, on August 2, 1914, the day after the declaration of war by Germany, the Grand Duke was appointed the Supreme Commander-in-Chief.
However, his power was significantly limited. First, it was immediately determined that the appointment of the Grand Duke to the highest post was temporary.
Secondly, the headquarters of Nikolai Nikolaevich (which, in fact, was the Headquarters) is made up by the Minister of War. With his light hand, N. N. Yanushkevich. This general was known for not participating in any war. His entire career was spent in adjutant, official and staff positions. 1st Quartermaster General Yu. N. Danilov, whose task is to develop operational plans. Danilov also has no military experience, although for many years he has been drawing up plans for war against Germany and Austria-Hungary. General A. A. Brusilov later described the two closest aides of the Grand Duke: "Yanushkevich, a very nice man, but rather frivolous and a bad strategist … Danilov, a narrow and stubborn man."
For the sake of justice, it should be noted that during his appointment, the Grand Duke is trying to form a headquarters from other persons - F. F. Palitsyn (one of the chiefs of the General Staff in the pre-war period) and M. V. Alekseeva (corps commander, and before that - chief of staff of the Kiev military district). Probably, this composition would be stronger in all respects. However, the Minister of War convinces the emperor to leave the Headquarters in the same composition. Thus, Sukhomlinov gets the opportunity to control the actions of the commander-in-chief through his protégés.
Thirdly, Nikolai Nikolayevich is virtually unable to change the pre-war plan for the deployment of troops. After all, the Grand Duke before the war did not take part in drawing up plans for a campaign against the central powers.
Finally, the Regulation on the Field Command of Troops in Wartime, adopted a week before the start of the war, sharply limits the power of the Supreme Commander-in-Chief in favor of the fronts.
In the 1914 campaign of the year, in fact, none of the operations carried out, except for the offensive of the troops of the Southwestern Front in Galicia, reached the intended goals. But the success of the Galician operation was also obtained due to the fact that the troops carried out the plans developed on the eve of the war (without the participation of the Supreme Commander-in-Chief)
Nevertheless, the Stavka is fulfilling its main task - the salvation of France at the cost of Russian blood.
The first decision of Nikolai Nikolaevich himself is the formation of a third direction of the offensive (to Berlin), in addition to the two already existing. Under the unrelenting pressure of the allies, the Grand Duke increases the power of the blow to Germany. For this, two new armies were formed in the Warsaw area, not foreseen before the war - the 9th and 10th. As a result, both Russian fronts, advancing in Galicia and East Prussia, were weakened. For the North-Western Front, the decision of the Grand Duke will be one of the key reasons for the defeat. Moreover, a few days before the disaster, Quartermaster General Danilov proposes to transfer the 1st Army to Warsaw, leaving only the 2nd Army in East Prussia. It was after the defeat of the 2nd Army that the Supreme Commander-in-Chief began to resort to conferences with the front-line headquarters - the strategic "gifts" of his assistants became quite clear to him …
As a result, the Grand Duke has to constantly maneuver between the rather contradictory opinions of the front-line headquarters, instead of working out a general strategic plan of action. The results of such activities are either defeat or the regrettable failure to use success even in those situations when the Russian troops gain the upper hand in the fight against the Austro-Germans …
After a heavy defeat in East Prussia, when the 2nd Army lost about 110 thousand people only in killed and captured, and its commander, cavalry general A. V. Samsonov, fearing capture, shot himself, Nikolai Nikolaevich begins to rely on artificially inflating insignificant successes into outstanding victories.
The Grand Duke daily reports to Petrograd on the results of the battles of individual formations and units, "forgetting" to summarize them. Thus, the general picture of the successes and failures of the Russian army turns out to be completely unknown even to the emperor …
The story of the capture of Lvov is indicative in this respect. Two days after the Germans defeated the 2nd Army, the troops of the Southwestern Front occupied the capital of Austrian Galicia, Lvov, without a fight. This event was inflated by the Stake in a grand victory. Contrary to the facts, it was even claimed that the city was taken after a bloody assault (which in fact did not take place, because the Austrians simply left the city). The commander of the 3rd Army, General N. V. Ruzsky for the capture of Lvov receives an unprecedented award - at the same time the Order of St. George of the 4th and 3rd degrees.
By the end of 1914, another serious problem in the Russian army was aggravated: “shell hunger”. The Russian units experienced a shortage of shells for artillery already in September, after the first operations. And by the beginning of December, the army commanders receive a secret order from the Headquarters: to fire no more than one shell per gun per day! In fact, the Russian army becomes unarmed in front of the enemy, surpassing it both in quantity and quality of artillery (especially heavy), and most importantly, having sufficient ammunition … hunger "Minister of War and is preparing new offensives, not wanting to save people and go to strategic defense. The reason for Nikolai Nikolayevich's "incomprehensible" adherence to simply an insane offensive strategy and tactics with the complete unpreparedness of the troops, alas, is extremely simple: the French, worried about their large losses in the battles on Ypres, persistently ask for all new Russian help …
All the onset of winter 1914-1915. as a result, they do not achieve their goals. The Russians are only accompanied by local successes, but the last shells have been wasted. The only significant victory was the surrender on March 3, 1915, by 120,000 Austrians in the Austro-Hungarian fortress of Przemysl, which had been besieged since October 1914 in the Russian rear. For Przemysl, the Supreme Commander-in-Chief is awarded the high military leader's order - St. George, 2nd degree.
In the meantime, the German command decides in the summer campaign of 1915 to transfer its main efforts to the Eastern Front. The goal of the campaign is to withdraw the Russian Empire from the war.
On April 19, the 11th German army breaks through the front in the Tarnov-Gorlice area. To avoid encirclement, the armies of the Southwestern Front leave the Carpathian passes and retreat.
The Russians have nowhere to wait for help. The British and French are firmly buried in their trenches and do not want to be active. It is no coincidence that, thanks to the allies, not a single German soldier was ever removed from the Eastern Front in 1915. Italy's entry into the war in May on the side of the Entente diverts the forces of only the Austro-Hungarians. The Germans, on the other hand, are moving more and more divisions from the Western Front to the Eastern.
Despite the shortage (and at times the complete absence) of ammunition, the Grand Duke gives the sacramental order: "Not a step back!" The famous military historian A. A. Kersnovsky described this "defensive" strategy as follows: "Not a step back" led in the end to the defeat of manpower and, as an inevitable consequence, the loss of the territory, for the preservation of which it was ordered to "stand and die."
The reckoning of the top generals on the inexhaustibility of human resources is becoming a real disaster for the Russian army. As a result of ill-conceived, and often just criminal military administration in 1915, the last regular soldiers and officers of the Russian army were virtually destroyed …
Meanwhile, the German command intends to arrange a giant "cauldron" in Poland for the troops of the North-Western Front. Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich is still ready to fight on the occupied lines, which promises the enemy a tremendous success …
The commander of the North-Western Front, General M. V. Alekseev, after much persuasion, nevertheless managed to persuade the Headquarters for a gradual retreat from Poland. Four Russian armies are retreating in an organized manner, holding back the onslaught of seven enemy armies. In all sectors, the Russians are defeated, but the enemy still fails to break through to the rear of the North-Western Front.
The retreat forces the Headquarters to decide on the use of scorched earth tactics. This leads not only to the destruction of food supplies, but also condemns the population of the abandoned territories to starvation. In addition, the Headquarters orders the evacuation of all men from eighteen to fifty years old. The families of men driven to the east inevitably follow their relatives. More than four million refugees are resettled in the inner provinces during the war. Railways are congested all the time. In the winter of 1917, this will cause a crisis in the supply of the country and the front with food …
The scorched earth tactics during the Great Retreat, alas, entails the inevitable disintegration of the Russian army. The orders of the Headquarters that the territory left to the enemy "should be turned into a desert" instill in the troops the habit of plunder, violence and cruelty against the civilian population.
In addition, since the end of 1914, Headquarters has been actively looking for "spies" to deflect accusations of defeats. This meets with warm support "from below", since the front and rear do not want to believe in the obvious unpreparedness of the country and the army for war …
Anyone with German surnames is recognized as potential spies. To be above suspicion, you must have Russian citizenship since 1880. All others are exiled by their families, soldiers are taken straight from the trenches. The headquarters gives an unspoken order to send officers with German surnames to the Caucasian Front. Ironically, it is to the Caucasus that Nikolai Nikolayevich himself will soon go …
Moreover, the Headquarters announces that the Jews are also potential German spies, and therefore all of them must be evacuated. Central Russia is flooded with desperate Jews, Poles and Galician Ukrainians - masses of an embittered, blaming (and quite rightly) government for all their troubles, a revolutionary-minded population.
In the troops, suspicion of espionage can also fall on everyone, especially after the resignation of the Minister of War, General from the cavalry Sukhomlinov in the summer of 1915 and the investigation into his high treason. As a result, all the failures at the front are explained in the army and society by the betrayal of the leaders
The campaign of total spy mania will become one of the reasons that in February 1917 the nation will so easily renounce the monarchy … After all, according to popular belief, the emperor is surrounded entirely by "spies", starting with his wife - that is why he himself is a "spy". Relations between Empress Alexandra Feodorovna and Nikolai Nikolaevich, from the cold, become openly hostile. The Grand Duke publicly declares that the Empress is allegedly the culprit of all troubles, and that the only way to avoid even greater misfortunes is to immediately imprison her in a monastery …
The reasons for hatred should be sought back in 1905, when it was the wife of the Grand Duke, the Montenegrin princess Anastasia Nikolaevna, who introduced the then-unknown G. E. Rasputin-Novykh, hoping through him to influence the royal family. But Rasputin did not want to be a pawn in the hands of eminent intriguers, deceived the expectations of his former patrons, after which he became the personal enemy of the Grand Duke …
Since the summer of 1915, Headquarters, probably to absolve itself of the blame for its military failures, has actively intervened in the internal affairs of the state. At the same time, close ties were established between the Grand Duke and the liberal opposition. This is primarily due to the fact that the lion's share of defense orders is transferred to private capital.
It was at the Headquarters, under pressure from Nikolai Nikolaevich and the majority of the cabinet, that Nicholas II found himself in June 1915.sacrifice four extreme right-wing ministers (including Minister of War Sukhomlinov) and agree to the resumption of meetings of the Duma, which since 1916 has increasingly turned into a platform for the propaganda of anti-government and then anti-monarchist sentiments …
Despite the difficult, bloody retreat, the soldiers and officers for the most part still admire their commander-in-chief, giving him even the features of an epic hero and a champion of justice. It comes to the point that all the failures are attributed to the generals, and all the successes are attributed only to Nikolai Nikolaevich. It is indicative that the Grand Duke personally travels to the front line, allegedly subjecting him to corporal punishment and even shooting generals for "disobeying orders." In reality, the generals are displaced according to the ideas of the commanders of the armies and fronts (and they, in turn, are replaced by the emperor). And on the front line, the Grand Duke, despite the idle talk, never showed up at all …
Of course, such an attitude, regardless of the actual state of affairs, helps to strengthen the moral climate in the army, especially in times of failure. The soldiers sincerely believe that they are being led into battle by an ardent intercessor, with whom Russia is invincible. But at the same time, the strong-willed figure of Nikolai Nikolaevich in the public mind begins to oppose the "weak-willed" emperor and his wife, the "traitor."
In fact, when in 1915 the Russian army faces the threat of a global catastrophe, an incessant panic and strife reigns in the Headquarters. The Grand Duke, without hesitation, sobs into his pillow, and even claims that the war with the Germans is generally “lost”
And yet, despite the strategic retreat, the Russian army manages to contain the enemy. It is planned that the distinguished General Alekseev will become the new chief of staff under the Grand Duke.
However, on August 21, 1915, the emperor arrived at Headquarters and announced his firm decision to become commander-in-chief himself. The army and society believe that the displacement of Nikolai Nikolaevich is due to the intrigues of the empress and Rasputin. The troops already believe in advance that the tsar will be an "unhappy" commander-in-chief. The removal of Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich finally undermines the faith of Russian soldiers in victory …
Nikolai Nikolaevich receives the post of governor of the tsar in the Caucasus. Despite the instructions of the emperor, he immediately tried to personally lead the Caucasian army in the Erzurum offensive operation in the winter of 1915-1916. Developed by the headquarters of N. N. Yudenich's plan of operation causes rejection of the Grand Duke and his assistants. Nevertheless, General Yudenich insists on his own, takes full responsibility and, instead of a fruitless siege, conducts a successful assault. The capture of Erzurum opens the way for the Russians to the depths of Asia Minor and promises an early withdrawal of the Ottoman Empire from the war. The Grand Duke admits he was wrong and has not intervened in the actions of the Caucasian army ever since. However, in the army and society, the Grand Duke is still (and completely undeservedly) considered the creator of the victories of Russian weapons in the Caucasus.
The growing general dissatisfaction with the ruling regime at the end of 1916 allows the liberal opposition to go on the offensive against the emperor. Realizing that the armed forces are the last and most powerful trump card in the hands of the tsar-commander-in-chief, opposition figures are drawing generals into the conspiracy.
The governor in the Caucasus has not been forgotten either. At the end of 1916, he was offered to replace his nephew on the throne as a result of a palace coup.
The Grand Duke refuses, but in February 1917 he does nothing to save the emperor. Moreover, in his famous telegram, the Grand Duke "kneeling" asks the tsar to yield and abdicate the throne.
It is known that the tsar is counting on his uncle, and at the time of the decision to abdicate, it is the telegram from the Grand Duke, which he watched the last of all, that makes him agree with the opinion of the generals involved by the liberals in a conspiracy against the sovereign and who unanimously spoke in favor of abdication
On March 2, 1917, the last decree of the tsar was the appointment to the post of commander-in-chief Nikolai Nikolaevich, chief of staff - General Alekseev. The appointment was greeted with glee both in the troops and in society. This does not go unnoticed by the Provisional Government. Upon arrival at Headquarters on March 11, 1917, the Grand Duke was already awaiting notification of his complete resignation from Prince G. E. Lvov, head of the Provisional Government. But a few months ago, Prince Lvov promised Nikolai Nikolaevich no less than the throne of the Russian Empire …
After his resignation, the Grand Duke lives in the Crimea. Having come to power, the Bolsheviks arrest him, but in April 1918 the prince was released by former enemies, the Germans, who occupied the west of the former Russian Empire in accordance with the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty.
A year later, Nikolai Nikolaevich leaves Russia forever. He lives in Italy, then in France, whose governments had something to thank the Grand Duke for … Among the white emigrants Nikolai Nikolaevich is considered the nominal leader of all Russian foreign organizations and is still one of the main contenders for the Russian throne. However, he no longer takes an active part in politics. On January 5, 1929, the Grand Duke dies in the town of Antibes …
Former Minister of War V. A. Sukhomlinov in his memoirs said about the Grand Duke: "the evil genius of Russia" …
In many ways, it was the mistakes of the Supreme Commander-in-Chief that led to the emergence of a revolutionary situation during the war. Moreover, the most unacceptable mistakes were not so much military-strategic as political. For, diverting from the Headquarters accusations of heavy defeats through the imposition of spy mania, flirting with the liberal opposition, the uncle very noticeably contributed to depriving the regime of his reigning nephew of legitimacy, and thereby unwittingly acted as one of the culprits of the relatively easy fall of the monarchy in 1917. This was quickly followed by a complete collapse of the front, and the seizure of power by the Bolsheviks, and, ultimately, the transition of Russia from the camp of the victors in the Great War to the camp of the defeated …
