At the end of the XIX century. a rivalry for influence in Mesopotamia developed between Great Britain and Germany. This happened for two reasons. First, the country's trade importance has increased since the opening of the Suez Canal. Secondly, in connection with the discovery of rich oil fields, primarily in Kurdistan.
In 1888-1903. Germany negotiated and acquired a concession from the Ottoman Empire for the construction of the Baghdad railway along its entire length, that is, from Konya to Baghdad. The construction of this road gave Germany significant advantages, both in Turkey itself and in Mesopotamia. [1] The British went to great lengths to thwart this construction: in June 1914, Germany even handed over to Great Britain the rights to build a section of the road south of Baghdad. [2]
And yet the influence of Germany in Mesopotamia, as well as in Persia, grew. The Germans fought for the markets of Syria and Mesopotamia, especially in the areas where the road was built. They established a number of agricultural colonies in Palestine. [3] The end of this expansion was put by the First World War, the result of which for the Arab countries of Asia was the redistribution of zones of influence.
In October 1914, British troops occupied the port of Fao, in November they captured Basra. As a result of the offensive of British troops that began in December 1916, Baghdad was occupied on March 11, 1917, and by the end of 1918 - the rest of Mesopotamia, including Mosul. The occupied territories were brought under the control of the British military administration. [4]
In 1920, Great Britain won a mandate for the state of Mesopotamia, which it created from the Baghdad, Bassor and Mosul vilayets of the collapsed Ottoman Empire, although Turkey until 1926 defended its rights to the latter region. “The occupation regime was established in Iraq as well. The governorates of Basra and Baghdad, occupied by the British during the war, were entirely under their military and civilian rule. Vilayet Mosul was also occupied by the British and placed entirely under their authority, but after the Mudross Armistice, in November 1918”[5].
From the very beginning of the occupation, Iraqi patriots stubbornly resisted the British colonialists. In the summer of 1920, all of Mesopotamia was engulfed in a national liberation uprising. [6] Its direct reason was the decisions of the San Remo conference. Despite the fact that the uprising was suppressed, it forced the British government to change the form of its rule in Mesopotamia: in October 1920, a "national government" was created, entirely dependent on Great Britain. In March 1921, at the Cairo conference, the question of the need to put a monarch at the head of Mesopotamia was considered, since the British were against the establishment of a republican form of government in the country. [7] On August 23, 1921, Mesopotamia was proclaimed the Kingdom of Iraq, headed by Emir Faisal, the son of King Hijaz Hussein. “Faisal was seated on the throne with the help of English bayonets. His coming to power, very hostile to the population, did not bring peace to the country”[8].
Emir Faisal
Great Britain on October 10, 1922 in Baghdad signed a "union" treaty for a period of 20 years with the Iraqi government, ratified by the Iraqi side only in June 1924. The treaty, approved in September of the same year by the Council of the League of Nations, actually formalized Iraq's mandate dependence on Great Britain. Iraq was deprived of the right to independently conduct foreign policy. Control over the armed forces, finances, and the entire political and economic life of the country was transferred to the hands of the British High Commissioner. [9]
USSR flag
Flag of the Kingdom of Iraq
In 1926, Great Britain achieved the incorporation of the oil-rich Mosul vilayet into Iraq. Thus, a belt of states was created from the Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf, which was, in fact, a springboard for an attack on the USSR in the event of a full-scale war. [10] Hence the great interest of the Soviet special services in Iraq (see below).
In gratitude for the accession to their country of a vast wealthy region, the Iraqi nationalists did not at all object to the renegotiation of the treaty with the British in 1926 for 25 years. [11] A similar Anglo-Iraqi treaty was signed in January and ratified in the same month by both chambers of the Iraqi parliament. After a series of additional measures to strengthen their power, the political position of the British in Iraq has become stronger than ever.
However, for undivided economic domination, the hands of the British were tied by the terms of the mandate: they were obliged to pursue an "open door" policy, which the American, Italian, German, French and Swiss business circles did not fail to take advantage of.
“The real results of the“offensive policy”of British imperialism in the Persian Gulf were summed up after the end of the First World War. As a result of the war, the entire territory of Southeast and Eastern Arabia actually became part of the British colonial empire; Iraq became British Mandate; under its control were southern Iran, the Iranian coast of the Persian Gulf and all the adjacent islands; the Iranian port of Bandar Bushehr has become the true capital of the British possessions in the Persian Gulf. The dominant position of England in this area has never been so indisputable as at the end of the first quarter of the 20th century. If ever it was appropriate to consider the Persian Gulf a “British lake”, it was at this time”[12].
* * *
There are cases when Iraqi merchants were looking for ways of direct trade with the Soviet Union. So, in 1925, one Baghdad merchant took part in the Nizhny Novgorod fair: he sold goods worth 181,864 rubles, about which the People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs G. V. Chicherin was informed in a letter from the Board of the Russian-Eastern Chamber of Commerce on the results of trade at the Nizhny Novgorod Fair dated September 28, 1925. [13] “On the Soviet markets (from Iraq. - PG) came for the first time in 1924/25 in a significant amount of sheepskin, goat and lamb shrimp [14]. Baghdad whiskers are of very high quality. The demand for it at the Nizhny Novgorod fair was so great that the Persian merchants began to buy up the Baghdad lamb, sending it in transit through Persia. It is very important to create an opportunity for Iraqi merchants to deliver their goods by sea through Odessa, while maintaining the Asian tariff for the goods imported by them; otherwise they have to transport their goods in transit through Persia. Persian customs gains from such a route and Soviet consumers lose. When setting an Asian tariff for Iraqi goods, Baghdad merchants are planning to start exporting some Soviet goods as well. The issue of the development of trade with Iraq … deserves attention, especially since the Iraqi merchants agree to cover their entire import with the export of Soviet goods”[15].
G. V. Chicherin
In 1926, two Iraqi firms were already selling karakul in Nizhny and purchasing manufactory and galoshes. At the invitation of the Russian Chamber of Commerce, Iraqi merchants visited the Moscow Trade Exchange, where they entered into agreements with a number of economic institutions. [16]
In 1928, a freight steamship service was established between the ports of the Soviet Union and the Persian Gulf, which could not but stimulate Soviet-Iraqi relations. In September 1928 the steamer Mikhail Frunze arrived in Basra. Under pressure from local merchants, the British administration allowed a Soviet steamer to enter the Iraqi port. In October, the ship "Communist" came here. [17]
In addition to direct sea communication, Iraqi merchants used the delivery of goods through Beirut using the Baghdad-Damascus-Beirut road transport line, which became possible after the conclusion of an agreement between Iraq, Lebanon and Syria on exemption from customs duties on goods of contracting countries. [18]
The successful development of Soviet-Iraqi trade led to the establishment of contacts with the southern and eastern regions of the Arabian Peninsula. Thus, in 1932, a consignment of Soviet goods, including flour, oil products and sugar, was unloaded for Hadhramaut (historical region in Yemen, see map). Soviet goods began to appear in Bahrain's markets. [19]
The Soviet side tried to impart a long-term character to trade relations with Iraq. Thus, in the summer of 1930, representatives of Soviet trade institutions visited Baghdad and Basra and held negotiations with interested parties on expanding trade ties between their countries. In April 1934, an employee of the People's Commissariat for Foreign Trade, A. I. Stupak, who was able to "hold out" in the country until 1936 [20], when a coup d'etat took place in Iraq, as a result of which the internal political situation in the country sharply deteriorated. [21]
Since January 1926, after the British concluded a long-term treaty with Iraq, their political power in this country seemed unshakable, despite the fact that Great Britain pledged to abandon the Iraqi mandate in the foreseeable future. However, for undivided economic domination, the hands of the British were tied by the terms of the mandate: they were obliged to pursue an "open door" policy, which the American, Italian, German, French and Swiss business circles did not fail to take advantage of.
The next Anglo-Iraqi treaty "on friendship and alliance" [22] was signed in December 1927 in London. Under this agreement, Great Britain pledged to recognize the independence of Iraq and promote its inclusion in the League of Nations, and in return, it retained control over the armed forces and finances of this country. Despite the fact that the 1927 treaty was never ratified, he prepared the 1932 agreement to abolish the mandate and admit Iraq to the League of Nations.
The next Anglo-Iraqi treaty "on friendship and alliance" [23], signed in London in June 1930 for 25 years really functioned for a quarter of a century. This treaty placed Iraqi foreign policy under British control and provided the United Kingdom with the opportunity to deploy its troops in that country at two air bases, which enjoyed freedom of movement throughout the country. On October 3, 1932, Iraq became a member of the League of Nations, after which the 1930 treaty entered into force [24] and was in effect until 1955.
In 1934, the "Committee for the Struggle Against Imperialism and Exploitation" was created in Iraq, the first communist organization transformed in 1935 into the Iraqi Communist Party (ICP). In the same year, the IKP established contacts with the Comintern and its representatives attended the VII Congress of the Comintern as observers, and already in 1936 the IKP became its section. [25]
At that time, the Soviet leadership provided for the possibility of a war with Great Britain, therefore, it was Iraq, which was closer to other Arab countries to the borders of the USSR and was one of the other Arab countries in which the influence of Great Britain was strong, that the Soviet special services were especially interested in. In the mid-1920s, approx. 20 residencies of the Soviet political intelligence - the Foreign Department (INO) of the OGPU. In addition to the tasks common to all residencies, each of them had its own specific ones related to its location and capabilities. So, the Constantinople residency, which was supervised by the 4th (South European and Balkan countries) sector of the INO (residency in Vienna), from 1923-1926.began to conduct intelligence work in Egypt, Palestine and Syria (including Lebanon). The Kabul station had a wide network of agents both on the border with India and in India itself. The station in Tehran operated through the Kermanshah point in Iraq. [26] “… The threat of a global conflict with Britain was the reason for Moscow's insistent demands for the GPU to penetrate and gain a foothold in Iraq. According to the available information, the British were building two air bases in northern Iraq, from where their aviation could easily reach Baku, bomb the oil fields and return. Therefore, intelligence began to work actively among the Iraqi Kurds, hoping, if necessary, to raise an anti-British uprising in Iraqi Kurdistan and to disable both the oil fields in Mosul and the airfields from which British aircraft could fly to bomb Baku”[27].
In the summer of 1930, contacts began between the USSR and Iraq regarding the establishment of diplomatic relations. [28] Plenipotentiary Representative in Turkey Ya. Z. Suritz [29] reported that “The Iraqi representative … spoke to me that he intends to raise the issue of establishing diplomatic relations with us. He considers the moment favorable in connection with the recognition of the independence of Iraq”[30].
Ya. Z. Surits
However, the independence of Iraq at that time cannot be called independence in the full sense of the word. Control by Great Britain was so close and pressure so severe that the visa for the Soviet trade representative, obtained in February 1931, was canceled at the request of the British Consul General in Baghdad. Only in the fall of the same year was permission from the Iraqi authorities received again, but a trade mission officer who had arrived from Persia was forced to leave the country at the request of the Iraqi Ministry of Internal Affairs before the completion of negotiations on economic cooperation that he had begun.
In the current situation, the Soviet side began to resort to the mediation of Iraqi private companies, concluding agreements with them for the sale of Soviet goods. Despite the fact that the deliveries were sporadic, Iraqi merchants showed interest in the purchase of sugar, fabrics and lumber (in the mid-1930s, about half of all box containers for dates, one of the most important Iraqi export products, were imported from the USSR to Iraq). [31]
In general, from 1927 to 1939, with a break in 1938, machines and tools, threads, lumber, dishes, rubber products, sugar, matches, plywood, fabrics, ferrous metals, etc. were supplied to Iraq from the Soviet Union. From Iraq in 1928 –1937 with a break in 1931-1933. hides and furs were imported. [32]
The next episode, connected with the possible establishment of diplomatic relations between the Soviet Union and Iraq, took place in Tehran on March 26, 1934, in a conversation between S. K. Pastukhov [33] with Charge d'Affaires of Iraq in Persia Abd-al-Aziz Modgafer [34]. The Iraqi spokesman said the following: "… When Iraq has achieved full political independence, the Iraqi government will seek to establish normal relations with the Soviet Union, first commercial and then diplomatic" [35].
S. K. Pastukhov
In 1937, Iraq became one of the members of the "Saadabad Pact", or the Middle East Entente, formed by the efforts of British diplomacy to strengthen the position of Great Britain in the Middle East. [36] This led to a deterioration in Soviet-Iraqi trade relations. After the signing of the Soviet-German non-aggression pact in August 1939, Great Britain and France closed access to Soviet goods not only to their markets, but also to the Arab countries dependent on them. [37]
NOTES
[1] See: The Baghdad Road and the Penetration of German Imperialism into the Middle East. Tashkent, 1955.
[2] See: The diplomatic history of the Baghdad railroad. Columbia, 1938.
[3] See: The Expansion of German Imperialism in the Middle East on the Eve of the First World War. M., 1976.
[4] New history of the Arab countries. M., 1965, p. 334, 342-343.
[5] The Arab question and the victorious powers during the Paris Peace Conference (1918-1919).- In the book: Arab countries. History. Economy. M., 1966, p. 17.
[6] See: National Liberation Uprising in 1920 in Iraq. M., 1958; … Arab uprisings in the twentieth century. M., 1964.
[7] Iraq, past and present. M., 1960, p. 25.
[8] Ibid, p. 26; Iraq during the British Mandate. M., 1969, p. 102-106. See: Three kings in Baghdad. L., 1961.
[9] See: Treaty between the United Kingdom and Iraq, signed at Baghdad, Oct. 10, 1922. L., 1926.
[10] Recent history of the Arab countries of Asia (1917-1985). M., 1988, p. 269-276. See: USSR Foreign Policy Documents. T. VI, p. 606; National liberation movement in Iraq. Yerevan, 1976.
[11] See: Treaty between Great Britain and Iraq, signed at Baghdad, Jan. 13, 1926. Geneva, 1926.
[12] Eastern Arabia: history, geography, population, economy. M., 1986, p. 56 See: The Truth about Syria, Palestine and Mesopotamia. L., 1923.
[13] Fiberboard of the USSR. T. VIII, p. 539-541.
[14] Skins of coarse-wooled lambs. (Author's note).
[15] The relationship of the USSR with the countries of the East. - In the book: Trade of the USSR with the East. M.-L., 1927, p. 48-49.
[16] Foreign trade relations of the USSR with the countries of the Arab East in 1922-1939. M., 1983, p. 95.
[17] Ibid, p. 96-97.
[18] Ibid, p. 98.
[19] Ibid, p. 99.
[20] Ibid, p. 101-104.
[21] See: Iraq in the Struggle for Independence (1917-1969). M., 1970, p. 61-71.
[22] See: Treaty between the United Kingdom and Iraq, signed in London, Dec. 14, 1927. L., 1927.
[23] British and Foreign State Papers. Vol. 82. L., 1930, p. 280-288.
[24] See: Uk. cit., p. 35-41.
[25] Red flag over the Middle East? M., 2001, p. 27. See: Communists of the Middle East in the USSR. 1920s-1930s. M., 2009, ch. IV.
[26] Essays on the history of Russian foreign intelligence. T. 2, p. 241-242.
[27] Iran: opposition to empires. M., 1996, p. 129.
[28] Diplomatic relations between the USSR and Iraq were established from August 25 to September 9, 1944 at the mission level. On January 3-8, 1955, diplomatic relations were interrupted by the Iraqi government. On July 18, 1958, an agreement was reached on the resumption of the activities of diplomatic missions at the level of embassies.
[29] Surits, Yakov Zakharovich (1882-1952) - statesman, diplomat. Graduated from the Philosophy Department of the University of Heidelberg. In 1918-1919. - deputy. plenipotentiary in Denmark, in 1919-1921. - Plenipotentiary in Afghanistan. In 1921-1922. - Member of the Turkestan Commission of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee and authorized by the People's Commissariat for Foreign Affairs for Turkestan and Central Asia. In 1922-1923. - Plenipotentiary in Norway, in 1923-1934. - in Turkey, in 1934-1937. - in Germany, in 1937-1940. - in France. In 1940-1946. - Counselor in the central office of the NKID / MFA. In 1946-1947. - Ambassador to Brazil.
[30] Fiberboard of the USSR. T. XIII, p. 437.
[31] Recent history of the Arab countries (1917-1966). M., 1968, p. 26.
[32] Foreign trade of the USSR in 1918-1940. M., 1960., p. 904-905.
[33] Pastukhov, Sergei Konstantinovich (pseudonym - S. Iranian) (1887-1940) - diplomat, Iranian. Graduated from the Faculty of Law of Moscow State University, the Eastern Branch of the Military Academy of the Red Army. In 1918-1938. - An employee of the People's Commissariat for Foreign Affairs: head of the Middle East department, plenipotentiary representative of the USSR in Persia (1933-1935), head of the 1st Eastern department, the Political Archive. Author approx. 80 works on the history of Persia, Soviet-Persian relations.
[34] In the text - Abdul Aziz Mogdafer.
[35] Fiberboard of the USSR. T. XVII, p. 211.
[36] See: Saadabad Pact After Signing. Yekaterinburg, 1994.
[37] UK. cit., p. 106.
