In 1798-1801, on the initiative and under the direct leadership of Napoleon Bonaparte, the French army tried to gain a foothold in the Middle East by capturing Egypt. In the historical career of Napoleon, the Egyptian campaign became the second major war after the Italian campaign.
Egypt, as a territory, had and is of great strategic importance. During the era of colonial expansion, it was very attractive for both Paris and London. The bourgeoisie of southern France, especially Marseille, has long had extensive ties and traded with the Mediterranean countries. The French bourgeoisie was not averse to gaining a foothold in a number of lucrative places, such as the coast of the Balkan Peninsula, the islands of the eastern Mediterranean, the Greek archipelago, Syria and Egypt.
By the end of the 18th century, the desire to establish colonies in Syria and Egypt had grown significantly. The British captured a number of French colonies (Martinique, Tobago, etc.), as well as some Dutch and Spanish colonial possessions, which led to an almost complete cessation of French colonial trade. This hit the French economy hard. Talleyrand in his report to the Institute on July 3, 1797 "Memoir on the advantages of new colonies in modern conditions" directly pointed to Egypt as a possible compensation for the losses suffered by the French. This was facilitated by the gradual weakening of the Ottoman Empire, which was losing its positions in North Africa. The decline of Turkey in the 18th century led to the emergence of the issue of "Turkish inheritance". Egypt in this legacy was a particularly tasty morsel.
The French also looked closely at the very tempting Levant, the territory of the eastern Mediterranean Sea (modern Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Jordan, Palestine), which was the possession of the Ottoman sultans. For a long time, since the time of the Crusades, Europeans were also interested in Egypt, which during the French Revolution was legally part of the Ottoman Empire, but in fact was an independent state formation. Egypt, washed by both the Mediterranean and the Red Seas, could become a springboard through which France could exert a more serious influence on competitors in the struggle for India and other Asian countries and lands. The famous philosopher Leibniz once submitted a report to King Louis XIV, in which he advised the French monarch to seize Egypt in order to undermine the position of the Dutch throughout the East. Now the main competitor of France in South and Southeast Asia was England.
Therefore, it is not surprising that Napoleon's proposal to seize Egypt did not anger the French government. Even before the campaign in Egypt, Napoleon ordered the capture of the Ionian Islands. At the same time, he finally conceived the idea of a campaign to the East. In August 1797, Napoleon wrote to Paris: "The time is not far off when we will feel that in order to really defeat England, we need to conquer Egypt." Having seized the Ionian Islands, he persistently advised the government to seize Malta, it was needed as a base for throwing itself into Egypt.
Political situation
After the victory in Italy, Napoleon on December 10, 1797 was solemnly greeted in Paris. Crowds of people greeted the hero, whose name has not left the lips lately. In the Luxembourg Palace, the general was greeted by all official France: members of the Directory, ministers, dignitaries, members of the Council of Elders and the Council of Five Hundred, generals, senior officers. Barras delivered a flowery speech in which he greeted Bonaparte as a hero who avenged France, enslaved and destroyed in the past by Caesar. The French commander brought to Italy, in his words, "freedom and life."
However, behind the smiles and friendly speeches of politicians, as usual, lies, irritation and fear were hidden. Napoleon's victories in Italy, his negotiations with the Italian governments and the Austrians, made him a political figure, he ceased to be just one of many generals. For almost two years, Napoleon acted in both the military and political and diplomatic spheres, disregarding the interests of the ruling group, often in direct conflict with them. In particular, the Directory gave Napoleon a direct order not to conclude peace with Austria, to start a campaign against Vienna. But the general, contrary to the clear instructions of the government, concluded a peace, and the Directory was forced to accept it, since the legislative councils and the whole country, exhausted by the war, yearned for peace. The latent confrontation was constantly increasing. And what frightened the members of the Directory, Napoleon's positions were constantly strengthening. His policies met with widespread support.
Bonaparte was faced with a choice: what to do next? The situation in the Republic was difficult - finances were in disarray, the treasury was empty, corruption and theft were in full bloom. A handful of speculators, suppliers to the army, embezzlers made huge fortunes, and the common people, especially the poor, suffered from a shortage of food, high, speculative food prices. The directory was unable to create a stable regime, to put things in order in the country, on the contrary, its members were themselves participants in embezzlement and speculation. However, Napoleon did not yet know what exactly to strive for. He was ambitious enough and applied for a place in the Directory. Attempts have been made in this direction. But the members of the Directory, and above all Barras, were against the inclusion of the general in the government. The direct, legal path to the pinnacle of power turned out to be closed for Napoleon. Other ways were still impossible. The majority of the population still supported the Republic, the illegal seizure of power could cause serious resistance in society. The trip to Egypt postponed the final decision, gave Napoleon time to think, strengthen the camp of his supporters. Success in this campaign could have strengthened his public image. Yes, and his opponents were glad - the Directory, not without pleasure, sent the ambitious general to the Egyptian expedition. If it succeeds, it is good; it perishes, it is also good. This decision satisfied both parties.
It must be said that at this time Napoleon became close to Foreign Minister Talleyrand. He, with some instinct, guessed a rising star in the young Corsican general and began to support his endeavors.
Another month and a half before returning to Paris, Bonaparte was appointed commander of the "English army". This army was destined for the invasion of the British Isles. After the signing of peace with Austria and the Russian Empire, only England was at war with France. The weakness of the French fleet, relative to the British fleet, did not allow the safe transport of a large army to America or India. Therefore, two options were proposed: 1) to land a landing in Ireland, where the local population hated the British (they actually carried out the genocide of the Irish); 2) to land an army in the possessions of the Ottoman Empire, where, with luck, you could move it to India. In India, the French counted on the support of local rulers. The second option was preferable. It was believed that one could get along with the Turks. France has traditionally had a strong position in Istanbul. In addition, after the French seized the Ionian Islands and France signed favorable agreements with the Kingdom of Naples, Britain lost all of its permanent naval bases in the Mediterranean.
In addition, the East always attracted Napoleon. His favorite hero was more Alexander the Great than Caesar or any other historical hero. Already traveling through the Egyptian deserts, he half-jokingly, half-seriously told his companions that he was born too late and could not, like Alexander the Great, who also conquered Egypt, immediately proclaim himself a god or a son of God. And already quite seriously he spoke about the fact that Europe is small and that truly great things can be done in the East. He told Burienne: “Europe is a wormhole! There have never been such great possessions and great revolutions as in the East, where 600 million people live”. Large-scale plans were born in his head: to reach the Indus, to raise the local population against the British; then turn, take Constantinople, raise the Greeks to the liberation struggle against Turkey, etc.
Napoleon possessed strategic thinking and understood that England is the main enemy of France in Europe and the world. The idea of invading the British Isles was very tempting for Napoleon. Raise a French banner in London, which could have been more captivating for the ambitious Napoleon. England did not have powerful ground forces and would not be able to withstand the French army. In 1796, the French managed to establish contacts with the Irish national revolutionary circles. But the operation was very risky due to the weakness of the French fleet. In February 1798 Napoleon drove to the western and northern coasts of France. He visited Boulogne, Calais, Dunkirk, Newport, Ostend, Antwerp and other places. He talked with sailors, fishermen, smugglers, delved into all the details, analyzing the situation. The conclusions reached by Napoleon were disappointing. The success of the landing on the British Isles, either naval or financially, was not guaranteed. According to Napoleon himself, the success of the operation depended on luck, on chance.
The beginning of the expedition and the capture of Malta
On March 5, 1798, Napoleon was appointed commander of the "Egyptian army". 38 thous. the expeditionary army was concentrated in Toulon, Genoa, Ajaccio and Civitavecchia. Napoleon in a short time spent a great deal of work on the preparation of the expedition, on the inspection of ships, on the selection of people for the campaign. Inspecting the coast and the fleet, forming units, the commander continued to closely monitor the British fleet under the command of Nelson, which could destroy all his plans. Bonaparte almost one by one selected soldiers and officers for a campaign in Egypt, preferring trusted people, those with whom he fought in Italy. Thanks to his exceptional memory, he knew a huge number of people individually. He checked everything personally - artillery, ammunition, horses, provisions, equipment, books. He took on the campaign the color of the generals of the Republic - Kleber, Deze, Berthier, Murat, Lannes, Bessières, Junot, Marmont, Duroc, Sulkovsky. Lavalette, Burienne. Scientists also went on the campaign - the future "Institute of Egypt", the famous Monge, Berthollet, Saint-Hiller, Conte, Dolomier, etc.
On May 19, 1798, an armada of four hundred transports and warships left the ports and, having united, moved south. Its flagship was the battleship Orion. All Europe knew that an expeditionary corps was being prepared in France, that its commander was the famous Bonaparte. The question was - where will it be sent? The capture of Malta, Sicily, Egypt? Ireland? No one, except for the narrowest circle of military leaders, knew where the fleet was headed. Even the Minister of War Scherer was not in the know until the very last days. The newspapers spread all kinds of rumors. In early May, there was a popular rumor that the fleet would pass the Strait of Gibraltar, overtake the Iberian Peninsula and land troops on the Green Island. This rumor was also believed by the British, Nelson, while the French fleet left the harbor and to Malta, was guarding Gibraltar.
On June 9-10, the leading French ships reached Malta. The island has belonged to the Order of the Knights of Malta since the 16th century. The Knights of Malta (also known as the Hospitallers or Johannites) at one time played a large role in the fight against North African pirates and the Ottoman Empire, but at the end of the 18th century. experienced a time of decline. The order maintained friendly relations with England and Russia, enemies of France. The island was used as a temporary base for the British fleet.
The French made a request for a supply of drinking water. The Maltese gave permission for only one ship to draw water at a time. Given the size of the French fleet, this was audacious (a delay could lead to the appearance of a British fleet). General Bonaparte demanded the surrender of the island. The Maltese began to prepare for defense. However, the knights long ago lost their fighting spirit and were not capable of fighting, the mercenaries did not show the desire to die a death of the brave and surrendered or went over to the side of the French, the local population also did not express a desire to fight. Grandmaster of the Order of Malta Ferdinand von Gompesz zu Bolheim failed to organize the defense, on the contrary, he readily surrendered to the French, explaining his actions by the fact that the charter of the order prohibits the Hospitallers from fighting Christians. As a result, the French fleet easily landed several assault forces, which quickly occupied the entire island. A French banner was raised over the fortress of La Valette.
Napoleon won his first victory. On June 19, the French fleet moved on, favorable winds blew, and the British were not visible. A small garrison was left on the island.
