Conquerors in Egypt
The operation to capture Egypt was a success for Napoleon. Cairo, the second of the two large Egyptian cities, was occupied. The frightened population did not even think to resist. Bonaparte even issued a special proclamation, which was translated into the local language, where he urged people to calm down. However, he simultaneously ordered the punishment of the village of Alkam, near Cairo, its residents were suspected of killing several soldiers, so the Arab concern did not diminish. Such orders Napoleon, without hesitation and hesitation, issued wherever he fought - in Italy, Egypt, in future campaigns. This was a very definite measure that was supposed to show people how those who dared to raise their hand against the French soldier would be punished.
A significant amount of food was found in the city. The soldiers were pleased with the booty they captured in the battle at the pyramids (the Mamelukes had a custom to carry their gold with them, and their weapons were adorned with precious stones, gold and silver) and the opportunity to rest.
Kleber successfully subdued the Nile Delta. Dese was sent to observe Murad Bey. Deze pursuing the Mamelukes, defeated them on October 7 at Sediman and established himself in Upper Egypt. Ibrahim Bey, after several unsuccessful skirmishes with the French, withdrew to Syria.
Bonaparte, having seized Cairo, was able to begin the reorganization of the Egyptian system of government. All the main power was concentrated with the French military commandants of cities and villages. Under them, an advisory body ("sofa") was established from the most eminent and wealthy local residents. The commandants, with the support of the "sofas", were supposed to keep order, perform police functions, control trade and protect private property. The same advisory body was to appear in Cairo under the commander-in-chief, it included not only representatives of the capital, but also of the provinces. Mosques and Muslim clergy were not harassed, respected and inviolable. Later, the Muslim clergy even declared Napoleon "the favorite of the great prophet." It was planned to streamline the collection of taxes and taxes, as well as organize delivery in kind for the maintenance of the French army. All land levies that the Mameluke beys levied were canceled. The land holdings of the rebellious feudal lords, who fled with Murad and Ibrahim to the south and east, were confiscated.
Napoleon tried to end feudal relations and find support among Arab traders and landowners. His measures were aimed at creating a military dictatorship (all supreme power was in the hands of the commander-in-chief) and a bourgeois (capitalist) order. The tolerance of the French occupiers was supposed to reassure the local population. I must say that in France itself, the attitude towards the Catholic Church during the revolution was very cruel.
It should be noted that Napoleon did not take the color of French science with him for nothing. Scientists were protected during the battles: "Donkeys and scientists in the middle!" The commander was well aware of the great benefits scientists can bring if their activities are directed towards solving military, economic and cultural problems. Bonaparte's expedition played a huge role in the history of Egyptology. In fact, it was then that the ancient Egyptian civilization was opened to world science. True, one cannot fail to note the fact that the French, like then the British, very thoroughly plundered the heritage of Egyptian civilization. This is a distinctive feature of Western conquerors, both in the past and in the present, direct hostilities are always accompanied by plunder. Scientists, on the other hand, play the role of "guides", "appraisers" of the stolen goods. In 1798, the Institute of Egypt (fr. L'Institut d'Égypte) was established, which marked the beginning of a large-scale looting of the legacy of ancient Egyptian civilization and the "adjustment" of facts to the interests of the builders of the "new world order".
The French army was able to establish a requisition mechanism, solving the supply problem. But they collected less money than expected. Then the French found another way to get hard coins. The Alexandrian governor-general Kleber arrested the former sheikh of this city and the great rich man Sidi Mohammed El Koraim, accused him of high treason, although there was no evidence. The sheikh was sent to Cairo, where he was asked to pay for himself a ransom in the amount of 300 thousand francs in gold. However, El-Koraim turned out to be a greedy person or really was a fatalist, he said: “If I am destined to die now, then nothing will save me, and I will give, then my money is useless; if I am not destined to die, then why should I give them away? " Bonaparte ordered to cut off his head and take him through all the streets of Cairo with the inscription: "This is how all traitors and perjurers will be punished." The sheikh's money was never found. But for other rich people, this incident was a very significant event. The new authorities were very serious in the matter of money. A few rich people turned out to be much more compliant and gave everything that was demanded of them. In the time following the execution of El-Koraim, about 4 million francs were collected. Simpler people were “dispossessed” without any special ceremonies and “hints”.
All attempts of resistance Napoleon crushed ruthlessly. At the end of October 1798, an uprising began in Cairo itself. Several French soldiers were taken by surprise and killed. The rebels defended themselves in several blocks for three days. The uprising was suppressed, then for several days there were massive demonstrative executions. The uprising in Cairo also resonated in some villages. The commander-in-chief, upon learning of the first such riot, ordered his adjutant Croisier to lead the punitive expedition. The village was surrounded, all the men were killed, women and children were brought to Cairo, and the houses were burned. Many women and children who were driven on foot died on the way. When the expedition appeared in the main square of Cairo, the heads of the dead men were poured out of the bags carried by the donkeys. In total, several thousand people were killed during the suppression of the October uprising. Terror was one of the methods of keeping people submissive.
Aboukir disaster
As noted above, Bonaparte was forced to reckon with a very dangerous circumstance for him - the possibility of an attack by the British fleet and the loss of communication with France. The French sailors were let down by carelessness. The command, despite the threat of the appearance of the enemy fleet, did not organize reconnaissance and patrol service, only the right-side guns were made for battle, facing the sea. A third of the crews were on the shore, others were busy with repairs. Therefore, despite the almost equal forces, the French even had a slight advantage in the number of guns, the battle ended in a decisive victory for the British fleet.
Thomas Looney, Battle of the Nile August 1, 1798 at 10 PM.
At 6 pm on August 1, 1798, the long-awaited, but not at that moment, British squadron under the command of Admiral Horatio Nelson suddenly appeared in front of the French ships stationed in Aboukir Bay in the Nile Delta. The British admiral seized the opportunity to seize the initiative. He attacked the French from two directions - from the sea and from the coast. The British were able to encircle a significant part of the French fleet and subjected them to shelling from both sides. By 11 o'clock in the morning on 2 August, the French fleet was completely defeated: 11 ships of the line were destroyed or captured. The French flagship "Orient" exploded and went to the bottom along with the treasury - 600 thousand pounds sterling in gold bars and precious stones, which were seized from Rome and Venice to finance the Egyptian expedition. The French lost 5, 3 thousand people killed, wounded and captured. Together with his fleet, Admiral François-Paul Bruyes also died. Only the commander of the French rearguard, Admiral P. Villeneuve, with two ships of the line and two frigates, was able to go to sea. The British lost 218 people killed and 677 wounded.
Battle map.
This defeat had very grave consequences for the Egyptian expedition. Napoleon's troops were cut off from France, supplies were disrupted. The British fleet completely dominated the Mediterranean. This defeat had negative political, military-strategic consequences for France. Istanbul, which until that time hesitated, ceased to support the fiction spread by Bonaparte that he was not at all at war with the Ottoman Empire, but only punished the Mamelukes for insults inflicted on French merchants and for the oppression of the Arab population of Egypt. The Ottoman Empire on September 1 declared war on France and the concentration of the Turkish army began in Syria. The II anti-French coalition was formed, it included England, Russia, Turkey, Austria, the Kingdom of Naples. The situation in Europe is beginning to take shape against France. The Black Sea squadron under the command of FF Ushakov will join the Turkish fleet and liberate the Ionian Islands from the French. Suvorov, together with the Austrians, will soon begin to liberate Italy. The Turkish army will threaten Napoleon from Syria.
The defeat at Abukir, according to contemporaries, caused despondency in the army. In fact, a certain discontent was observed earlier, when the lack of water, the "joys" of the desert and dysentery led to a decline in fighting spirit. Egypt was not a fairy tale land full of riches and miracles. The contrast was especially strong when compared to the flourishing Italy. Barren lands scorched by the sun, sand, poverty and wretchedness of the local population, who hate infidels, lack of visible wealth, constant heat and thirst. The Abukir catastrophe only increased the irritation of the army. Why the hell had they been carried to Egypt? Such sentiments prevailed not only among the soldiers, but also among the commanders.
Hike to Syria
The Ottomans, having concluded an alliance with England, prepared an army for an attack on Egypt across the Isthmus of Suez. In early 1799, the Acre Pasha Jezar occupied Taza and Jaffa and advanced the vanguard to Fort El Arish, the key of Egypt from the Syrian side. Simultaneously with the attack of the army from Syria, Murad Bey was supposed to attack the French in Upper Egypt, and an airborne corps was planned to land at the mouth of the Nile.
Napoleon learns about the death of the French fleet only on 13 August. A man of strong character, Napoleon, upon receiving this terrible message, did not become discouraged. He experienced, as happened to him during a critical situation, a great surge of energy. He writes to Admiral Gantom, Kleber and the Directory. He outlines urgent measures to rebuild the fleet. He does not give up on his grandiose plans. He also dreams of hiking India. The trip to Syria should, with luck, become only the first stage of a grandiose operation. In the spring of 1800, Napoleon wanted to be in India already. However, the forces of the French army were melting - at the end of 1798 Egypt was left with 29, 7 thousand people, of which 1, 5 thousand were incapable of combat. For a campaign in Syria, Napoleon was able to allocate only 13 thousand corps: 4 infantry divisions (Kleber, Rainier, Bona, Lannes) and 1 cavalry division (Murat). The rest of the troops remained in Egypt. Deze was left in Upper Egypt, in Cairo - Duga, in Rosette - Menou, in Alexandria - Marmont. A detachment of three frigates under the command of Perret was supposed to deliver a siege park (16 guns and 8 mortars) to Jaffa from Alexandria and Damietta. The corps was accompanied by a pack of 3 thousand camels with a 15th supply of food and a 3rd supply of water.
The Syrian campaign was terribly difficult, especially due to the lack of water. On February 9, parts of Kleber and Rainier arrived at El-Arish and laid siege to him. On February 19, when the rest of the troops approached, the fort, after a small skirmish, capitulated. On February 26, after a difficult crossing through the desert, the French reached Gaza. Initially, the course of the operation was successful. On March 3, French troops reached Jaffa. On March 7, after breaching the wall, Lann's and Bon's divisions took the city. Several dozen guns were captured in the fortress. Palestine was conquered. However, the further the French went east, the more difficult it became. The resistance of the Turkish troops intensified, the British loomed behind them. The population of Syria, on whose support Napoleon hoped, was as hostile to the infidels as in Egypt.
During the assault on Jaffa, the city was severely defeated, the French soldiers were extremely cruel to the vanquished, exterminating everyone in a row. Napoleon, before the assault, told the townspeople that if it came to an attack, there would be no mercy. The promise was fulfilled. In Jaffa, a crime was committed against prisoners of war. About 4 thousand Turkish soldiers surrendered on condition that they survived. The French officers promised them captivity, and the Turks left the fortification occupied by them, laid down their arms. Bonaparte was very annoyed with this whole affair. “What should I do with them now? - shouted the general. He had no supplies to feed the prisoners, no men to guard them, no ships to transport them to Egypt. On the fourth day after the capture of the city, he ordered everyone to be shot. All 4 thousand captives were taken to the seashore and here every one was killed. “I would not wish anyone to experience what we experienced, who saw this execution,” said one of the eyewitnesses of this event.
In Jaffa, the plague appeared in the army. The dead population of the city "took revenge" on the French - unburied corpses were scattered all over Jaffa. This disease undermined the morale of the soldiers. Napoleon was gloomy, walking in front of the troops gloomy and silent. The war did not develop as he dreamed, besides, he learned about the infidelity of his beloved Josephine. This news caused him a great shock. Napoleon was furious and heaped curses on the most precious name until recently.
But Napoleon still hoped to turn the tide. On March 14, the army moved on and on the 18th approached the walls of the old fortress Saint-Jean d'Acr (Acre). The fortress was defended by 5 thousand people. the garrison (initially, then was increased) under the command of Ahmed Al-Jazzar. Napoleon believed that the capture of this fortress would open for him a direct path to Damascus and Aleppo, to the Euphrates. He saw himself following the path of the great Alexander the Great. Beyond Damascus, Baghdad and a direct route to India awaited him. But the old fortress, which once belonged to the crusaders, did not succumb to Napoleon's troops. Neither the siege nor the assaults produced the expected results.
To rescue the fortress, the Turkish command sent 25 thousand army under the command of the Damascus Pasha Abdullah. Initially, Napoleon sent Kleber's division against her. But having learned about the significant superiority of the enemy forces, Bonaparte personally led the troops, leaving part of the corps to besiege Acre. On April 16, at Mount Tabor (Tavor), Napoleon defeated the Turkish troops, the Turks lost 5 thousand people, all their reserves and fled to Damascus.
The siege of Acre lasted two months and ended unsuccessfully. Napoleon did not have enough siege artillery, and there were few people for a massive assault. There was a shortage of shells, ammunition, and their delivery by sea and land was impossible. The Turkish garrison was strong. The British helped the Ottomans: the defense was organized by Sydney Smith, the British brought reinforcements, ammunition, weapons, provisions from the sea. The French army lost at the walls of Acre 500 (2, 3 thousand) killed and 2, 5 thousand wounded, sick. Generals Cafarelli (led siege work), Bon, Rambeau died, Sulkovsky died earlier, Lannes and Duroc were wounded. Acre was grinding the small French army. Napoleon could not replenish the ranks of his army, and the Turks were constantly receiving reinforcements. The commander was more and more convinced that his dwindling strength would not be enough to capture this fortress, which stood in the way of his dream as an insurmountable stronghold.
In the early morning of May 21, French troops withdrew from their positions. The soldiers marched quickly, shortening the rest time, so as not to overtake the enemy, the same road from which they came, after three months of suffering and sacrifices, which were in vain. The retreat was accompanied by the devastation of the region, in order to complicate the Ottomans to conduct an offensive operation. The retreat was even more difficult than the attack. It was already the end of May, and summer was approaching, when the temperature in these parts reached its maximum level. In addition, the plague continued to haunt the French army. They had to leave the plague, but they did not take the wounded and sick with them. Napoleon ordered everyone to dismount, and the horses, all the carriages and carriages to be given to those who were incapacitated. He walked himself, like everyone else. It was a terrible transition, the army was melting before our eyes. Plague, overwork, heat and lack of water killed people. Up to a third of its composition did not come back. On June 14, the remnants of the corps reached Cairo.
Departure of Napoleon
Bonaparte had hardly had time to rest in Cairo when the news came that a Turkish army had landed near Abukir. On July 11, the Anglo-Turkish fleet arrived at the Abukir raid; on the 14th, 18 thousand ships were landed. landing. Mustafa Pasha had to gather the Mamelukes and all those dissatisfied with French rule in Egypt. The French commander immediately set out on a campaign and headed north to the Nile Delta.
By July 25, Napoleon had gathered about 8 thousand soldiers and attacked the Turkish positions. In this battle, the French washed away the shame of the French fleet for their recent defeat. The Turkish landing army simply ceased to exist: 13 thousand dead (most of them drowned trying to escape), about 5 thousand prisoners. "This battle is one of the most beautiful that I have ever seen: not a single person was saved from the entire enemy army that landed," the French commander wrote joyfully. The losses of the French troops were 200 killed and 550 wounded.
Murat at the Battle of Abukir.
After that, Napoleon decided to return to Europe. France at that time was defeated in Italy, where all the fruits of Napoleon's victories were destroyed by the Russian-Austrian troops under the command of Suvorov. France itself and Paris were threatened by an enemy invasion. Confusion and complete disorder in business reigned in the Republic. Napoleon got a historic chance to "save" France. And he took advantage of it. In addition, his dream of conquering the East failed. On August 22, taking advantage of the absence of the British fleet, the commander sailed from Alexandria, accompanied by his comrades-in-arms, Generals Berthier, Lannes, Andreosi, Murat, Marmont, Duroc and Bessières. On October 9, they landed safely at Frejus.
The command of the French troops in Egypt was entrusted to Kleber. Napoleon gave him instructions, in which he allowed him to capitulate if "due to innumerable unforeseen circumstances, all efforts are ineffectual …". The French Egyptian army could not withstand the combined Anglo-Turkish forces. The troops cut off from France resisted for some time, but by the end of the summer of 1801 they were forced to clear Egypt, subject to their return to France. The main reason for the defeat of the Egyptian expedition was the lack of permanent communication with France and the domination of the British at sea.
