At the beginning of the 20th century, French scientists made impressive strides, making some of the most important discoveries in the field of research into radioactive materials. By the end of the 1930s, France had the best scientific and technical base in the world at that time, supported by generous funding from the state. Unlike the governments of a number of other industrialized states, the French leadership took seriously the statements of nuclear physicists about the possibility of releasing a colossal amount of energy in the event of a chain reaction of nuclear decay. In this regard, in the 1930s, the French government allocated funds for the purchase of uranium ore mined at a deposit in the Belgian Congo. As a result of this deal, more than half of the world's uranium reserves were at the disposal of the French. However, at that time it was of little interest to anyone, and uranium compounds were mainly used to make paint. But it was from this uranium ore that the filling for the first American atomic bombs was subsequently made. In 1940, shortly before the fall of France, all of the uranium raw materials were shipped to the United States.
In the first post-war years in France, there was no large-scale work in the field of nuclear energy. Badly affected by the war, the country was simply unable to allocate the necessary financial resources for expensive research. In addition, France, as one of the closest allies of the United States, in the defense sphere completely relied on American support, and therefore there was no talk of creating its own atomic bomb. It was only in 1952 that a plan for the development of nuclear power was adopted, and the French carried out research within the framework of a joint "peaceful atom" program with Italy and Germany. However, much has changed since Charles de Gaulle came to power again. After the start of the Cold War, the European NATO countries in many ways became hostages of the American policy. The French president was not without reason worried that in the event of a full-scale conflict with the Soviet Union, the territory of Western Europe in general and his country in particular could become a battlefield where the parties would actively use nuclear weapons. After the French leadership began to pursue an independent policy, the Americans began to openly demonstrate their irritation and relations between the countries noticeably cooled. Under these conditions, the French stepped up their own nuclear weapons program, and in June 1958, at a meeting of the National Defense Council, this was officially announced. In fact, the French president's statement legalized the production of weapons-grade plutonium. From de Gaulle's speech it followed that the main goal of France's nuclear program is to create a national strike force based on nuclear weapons, which, if necessary, could be used anywhere in the world. The "father" of the French nuclear bomb is considered to be physicist Bertrand Goldschmidt, who worked with Marie Curie and participated in the American Manhattan Project.
The first nuclear reactor of the UNGG type (English Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz - gas-cooled reactor on natural uranium), where it was possible to obtain fissile material suitable for creating nuclear charges, began to operate in 1956 in the south-east of France, at the national nuclear research center Marcoule …Two years later, two more were added to the first reactor. The UNGG reactors were fueled by natural uranium and cooled with carbon dioxide. The original thermal power of the first reactor, known as the G-1, was 38 MW and was capable of producing 12 kg of plutonium per year. Later, its capacity was increased to 42 MW. Reactors G-2 and G-3 had a thermal power of 200 MW each (after modernization it was increased to 260 MW).
Subsequently, Markul became a major nuclear power facility, where electricity was generated, plutonium and tritium were produced, and fuel cells for nuclear power plants were assembled based on spent nuclear fuel. At the same time, the nuclear center itself is located in a very densely populated area, not far from the Cote d'Azur. However, this did not prevent the French from performing various manipulations with radioactive materials here. In 1958, the first batch of plutonium suitable for creating a nuclear charge was obtained at the UP1 radiochemical plant in Markul. In 1965, a line was launched in Pierrelatte, where the gas-diffusion enrichment of uranium was carried out. In 1967, the production of highly enriched U-235, suitable for use in nuclear weapons, began. In 1967, the Celestine I reactor, designed to produce tritium and plutonium, began operating at the Markul nuclear center, and in 1968 the Celestine II of the same type was put into operation. This, in turn, made it possible to create and test a thermonuclear charge.
Despite international pressure, France did not join the moratorium on nuclear testing announced by the US, USSR and Great Britain between 1958 and 1961, and did not participate in the 1963 Moscow Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in Three Environments. In preparing for nuclear tests, France followed the path of Great Britain, which created a nuclear test site outside its territory. In the late 1950s, when it became clear that all the conditions were in place to create their own nuclear weapons, the French government allocated 100 billion francs for the construction of a test site in Algeria. The object was named in official papers "Center for Military Experiments of the Sahara." In addition to the test station and the experimental field, there was a residential town for 10 thousand people. To ensure the process of testing and delivery of goods by air, a concrete runway with a length of 2, 6 km was built in the desert 9 km east of the oasis.
The command bunker, from where the command to detonate the charge was given, was 16 km from the epicenter. As in the USA and the USSR, a metal tower with a height of 105 meters was built for the first French nuclear explosion. This was done on the assumption that the greatest damaging effect from the use of nuclear weapons is achieved with an air blast at low altitude. Around the tower, at various distances, various samples of military equipment and weapons were placed, and field fortifications were erected.
The operation, codenamed Blue Jerboa, was scheduled for February 13, 1960. A successful test explosion took place on 06.04 local time. The explosion energy of the plutonium charge is estimated at 70 kt, that is, approximately 2.5 times higher than the power of the atomic bomb dropped on the Japanese city of Nagasaki. Not a single country that has gained access to nuclear weapons has tested charges of such power during the first test. After this event, France entered the informal "nuclear club", which by that time consisted of: the USA, the USSR and the UK.
Despite the high level of radiation, shortly after the nuclear explosion, French troops moved to the epicenter on armored vehicles and on foot. They examined the condition of the test samples, made various measurements, took soil samples, and also practiced decontamination measures.
The explosion turned out to be very "dirty", and the radioactive cloud covered not only part of Algeria, the fallout of radioactive fallout was recorded in the territories of other African states: Morocco, Mauritania, Mali, Ghana and Nigeria. The fallout of radioactive fallout was recorded in most of North Africa and the island of Sicily.
The spice of the French nuclear tests carried out near the Reggan oasis was given by the fact that at that time an anti-colonial uprising was in full swing on the territory of Algeria. Realizing that they would most likely have to leave Algeria, the French were in a hurry. The next explosion, which received the designation "White Jerboa", scorched the desert on April 1, but the charge power was reduced to 5 kt.
Another test of the same power, known as the Red Jerboa, took place on December 27th. The latest in a series of tests conducted in this region of the Sahara was the Green Jerboa. The power of this explosion is estimated at less than 1 kt. However, the originally planned energy release should have been much higher. After the mutiny of the French generals, in order to prevent the nuclear charge prepared for testing from falling into the hands of the rebels, it was blown up "with an incomplete fission cycle." In fact, most of the plutonium core was scattered on the ground.
After the French hastily left the "Center for Military Experiments of the Sahara", in the vicinity of the Reggan oasis, there were several spots with high radiation. At the same time, no one warned the local population about the danger. Soon, local residents stole radioactive iron for their own needs. It is not known for certain how many Algerians suffered from ionizing radiation, but the Algerian government has repeatedly demanded financial compensation, which was partially satisfied only in 2009.
Over the years, winds and sand have worked hard to erase the traces of nuclear explosions, spreading contaminated soil across North Africa. Judging by the freely available satellite images, only relatively recently, at a distance of about 1 km from the epicenter, a fence was installed, preventing free access to the test site.
Currently, no structures and structures have survived in the test area. The fact that the hellish flame of nuclear explosions flared up here is reminiscent only of a crust of caked sand and a radioactive background that significantly differs from natural values. However, for more than 50 years, the level of radiation has dropped significantly, and as local authorities assure, it no longer poses a threat to health, unless, of course, be in this place for a long time. After the elimination of the landfill, the airbase built nearby was not closed. Now it is used by the Algerian military and for regional air travel.
After Algeria gained independence, French nuclear tests in this country did not stop. One of the conditions for the withdrawal of French troops was a secret agreement, according to which nuclear tests on Algerian territory were continued. France received from the Algerian side the opportunity to conduct nuclear tests for another five years.
The French chose the lifeless and secluded Hoggar plateau in the southern part of the country as the site of the nuclear test site. Mining and construction equipment was transferred to the area of the granite mountain Taurirt-Tan-Afella, and the mountain itself, more than 2 km high and 8x16 km in size, was dug with numerous adits. To the southeast of the foot of the mountain, the "In-Ecker Testing Complex" appeared. Despite the formal withdrawal of French military formations from Algeria, the security of the test complex was provided by a guard battalion numbering more than 600 people. Alouette II armed helicopters were widely used to patrol the surrounding area. Also, a dirt runway was built nearby, on which transport aircraft C-47 and C-119 could land. The total number of French troops and gendarmes in this area exceeded 2,500. In the vicinity, several base camps were set up, water supply facilities were built, and the mountain itself was surrounded by roads. More than 6,000 French specialists and local workers were involved in the construction work.
Between November 7, 1961 and February 19, 1966, 13 "hot" nuclear tests and approximately four dozen "additional" experiments took place here. The French called these experiments "cold tests". All "hot" nuclear tests carried out in this area were named after precious and semi-precious stones: "Agate", "Beryl", "Emerald", "Amethyst", "Ruby", "Opal", "Turquoise", "Sapphire", "Nephrite", "Corundum", "Tourmali", "Garnet". If the first French nuclear charges tested at the "Center for Military Experiments of the Sahara" could not be used for military purposes and were purely experimental stationary devices, then the bombs detonated at the "In-Ecker Testing Complex" served to test serial nuclear warheads with a capacity of 3 to 127 kt.
The length of adits drilled in the rock for nuclear tests ranged from 800 to 1200 meters. In order to neutralize the effect of the damaging factors of a nuclear explosion, the final part of the adit was made in the form of a spiral. After installing the charge, the adit was sealed with a "plug" of several layers of concrete, rocky soil and polyurethane foam. Additional sealing was provided by several doors made of armored steel.
Four of the thirteen underground nuclear explosions carried out in adits were not "isolated." That is, either cracks formed in the mountain, from where the release of radioactive gases and dust occurred, or the insulation of the tunnels could not withstand the force of the explosion. But it did not always end with the release of only dust and gases. The events that took place on May 1, 1962, were widely publicized, when during Operation Beryl, a real eruption of molten highly radioactive rock occurred from the test gallery due to the multiple excess of the calculated explosion force. The real power of the bomb is still kept secret, according to calculations, it was between 20 and 30 kilotons.
Immediately after the nuclear test, a gas-dust cloud escaped from the adit, knocking out an insulating barrier, which quickly covered the surroundings. The cloud rose to a height of 2,600 meters and, due to a sharply changed wind, moved towards the command post, where, in addition to military and civilian specialists, there were a number of high-ranking officials invited to the tests. Among them were Defense Minister Pierre Messmerr and Minister of Scientific Research Gaston Poluski.
This led to an emergency evacuation, which soon turned into a stampede and indiscriminate flight. Nevertheless, not everyone managed to evacuate on time, and about 400 people received significant doses of radiation. Road construction and mining equipment located nearby, as well as vehicles on which people were evacuated, were also exposed to radiation pollution.
The fallout of radioactive fallout, posing a threat to health, was recorded east of Mount Taurirt-Tan-Afella for more than 150 km. Although the radioactive cloud passed over uninhabited territories, in several places the zone of strong radioactive contamination is crossed by the traditional nomadic routes of the Tuareg.
The length of the lava flow ejected by the explosion was 210 meters, the volume was 740 cubic meters. After the radioactive lava froze, no measures were taken to decontaminate the area, the entrance to the adit was filled with concrete, and the tests were transferred to other parts of the mountain.
After the French finally left the area in 1966, no serious research was carried out on the impact of nuclear tests on the health of the local population. Only in 1985, after a visit to the area by representatives of the French Atomic Energy Commission, the approaches to the areas with the highest radiation were surrounded by barriers with warning signs. In 2007, IAEA experts recorded that the level of radiation in several places at the foot of Taurirt-Tan-Afell reaches 10 millirems per hour. According to expert estimates, the rocks melted and ejected from the test gallery will remain highly radioactive for several hundred years.
For obvious reasons, nuclear tests in France were impossible, and after leaving Algeria, the test sites were moved to the Mururoa and Fangatauf atolls in French Polynesia. In total, 192 nuclear tests were carried out on the two atolls from 1966 to 1996.
The fungus of the first atmospheric nuclear explosion rose over Mururoa on July 2, 1966, when a charge with a yield of about 30 kt was detonated. The explosion, made as part of Operation Aldebaran, and caused severe radiation pollution of the surrounding areas, was made in the center of the lagoon of the atoll. For this, the nuclear charge was placed on a barge. In addition to barges, bombs were suspended under tethered balloons and dropped from aircraft. Several free-fall bombs AN-11, AN-21 and AN-52 were dropped from Mirage IV bombers, a Jaguar fighter-bomber and a Mirage III fighter.
To carry out the testing process in French Polynesia, the "Pacific Experimental Center" was established. The number of its employees exceeded 3000 people. The infrastructure of the test center is located on the islands of Tahiti and Nao. In the eastern part of Mururoa Atoll, which measures 28x11 km, an airfield with a capital runway and piers were built. The tests were carried out in the western part of the atoll, but even now this area is closed to view on commercial satellite imagery.
In parts of the atoll adjacent to the test area, massive concrete bunkers were built in the 1960s to protect test personnel from shockwaves and penetrating radiation.
On August 29, 1968, the atmospheric test of the first French thermonuclear charge took place at Mururoa. The device, weighing about 3 tons, was suspended under a tethered balloon and detonated at an altitude of 550 meters. The energy release of the thermonuclear reaction was 2.6 Mt.
This explosion was the most powerful ever produced by France. Atmospheric testing in Polynesia continued until July 25, 1974. In total, France carried out 46 atmospheric tests in this region. Most of the explosions were carried out in wells that were drilled in the loose limestone base of the atolls.
In the 60s, the French military sought to catch up with the United States and the USSR in the field of nuclear weapons, and explosions on atolls thundered frequently. As in the case of the Algerian nuclear test sites, tests in the overseas territories in the South Pacific have been accompanied by various incidents. This was largely due to neglect of security measures, rush and miscalculations. Until mid-1966, five atmospheric and nine underground tests were carried out on Fangataufa Atoll. During the tenth underground test in September 1966, a nuclear charge was detonated at a shallow depth and the products of the explosion were thrown to the surface. There was a strong radioactive contamination of the area and after that test explosions at Fangataufa were no longer made. From 1975 to 1996, France conducted 147 underground tests in Polynesia. Also, 12 tests were carried out here to destroy real nuclear weapons without starting a chain reaction. During the "cold" tests, designed to work out safety measures and increase the reliability of nuclear weapons on the ground, a significant amount of radioactive material was dispersed. According to expert estimates, several tens of kilograms of radioactive material were sprayed during the tests. However, radiation contamination of the area also took place during underground explosions. Due to the close location of the test wells, after the explosion, cavities were formed, which were in contact with each other and filled with seawater. A zone of cracks with a length of 200-500 m was formed next to each explosive cavity. Through the cracks, radioactive substances seeped to the surface and were carried by sea currents. After a test carried out on July 25, 1979, when the explosion occurred at a shallow depth, a crack appeared with a length of two kilometers. As a result, there was a real danger of the atoll split and large-scale radiation pollution of ocean waters.
During the French nuclear tests, significant damage was caused to the environment and, of course, the local population was affected. However, the atolls of Mururoa and Fangataufa are still closed for visits by independent experts, and France is carefully hiding the damage caused to the nature of this region. In total, from February 13, 1960 to December 28, 1995, 210 atomic and hydrogen bombs were detonated at nuclear test sites in Algeria and French Polynesia. France joined the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons only in 1992, and the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty was ratified only in 1998.
It is only natural that the French nuclear tests attracted a lot of attention from the United States and the USSR. To monitor nuclear test sites in Algeria, the Americans created several monitoring stations in neighboring Libya that monitored the background radiation and conducted seismic measurements. After the transfer of nuclear tests to French Polynesia, American RC-135 reconnaissance aircraft began to appear frequently in this area, and American reconnaissance ships and Soviet "fishing trawlers" were almost constantly on duty close to the restricted area.
The implementation of the French nuclear weapons program was watched with great irritation from Washington. In the 60s, the French leadership, guided by national interests, pursued a policy independent of the United States. Relations with the United States deteriorated so much that in early 1966 de Gaulle decided to withdraw from NATO's military structures, in connection with which the headquarters of the North Atlantic Alliance was moved from Paris to Brussels.
In the middle of the same year, the French president paid a working visit to the Soviet Union. The French delegation led by de Gaulle at the Thura-Tam test site was shown the latest missile technology at that time. In the presence of the guests, the Kosmos-122 satellite was launched and a silo-based ballistic missile was launched. According to eyewitnesses, this made a great impression on the entire French delegation.
Charles de Gaulle wanted to avoid his country being drawn into a possible conflict between NATO and the Warsaw Pact countries, and after France had nuclear weapons, a different nuclear "containment" doctrine was adopted. Its essence was as follows:
1. French nuclear forces can be part of NATO's overall nuclear deterrent system, but France will make all decisions independently, and its nuclear potential must be completely independent.
2. Unlike the American nuclear strategy, which was based on the accuracy and clarity of the threat of retaliation, the French strategists believed that the presence of a purely European independent decision-making center would not weaken, but, on the contrary, strengthen the overall deterrence system. The presence of such a center will add an element of uncertainty to the existing system and thereby increase the level of risk for a potential aggressor. The situation of uncertainty was an important element of the French nuclear strategy, according to French strategists, uncertainty does not weaken, but enhances the deterrent effect.
3. The French nuclear deterrent strategy is "containment of the strong by the weak", when the "weak" task is not to threaten the "strong" with total destruction in response to its aggressive actions, but to guarantee that the "strong" will inflict damage that exceeds the benefits that he assumes to receive as a result of aggression.
4. The basic principle of the nuclear strategy was the principle of "containment in all azimuths". French nuclear forces had to be able to inflict unacceptable damage on any potential aggressor.
Formally, the French strategy of nuclear deterrence did not have a specific adversary, and a nuclear strike could be delivered against any aggressor threatening the sovereignty and security of the Fifth Republic. At the same time, in reality, the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact Organization were considered as the main enemy. For a long period of time, the French leadership in terms of strategic defense policy adhered to the principles laid down by de Gaulle. However, after the end of the Cold War, the liquidation of the Warsaw Pact and the collapse of the USSR, France resumed its membership in the military structure of NATO, largely lost its independence and is pursuing a pro-American policy.
