The era of the great geographical discoveries led to a centuries-old history of colonization of African, Asian, American, Oceanian territories by European powers. By the end of the 19th century, all of Oceania, practically all of Africa and a significant part of Asia were divided between several European states, between which a certain rivalry for colonies developed. Great Britain and France played a key role in the division of overseas territories. And if the positions of the latter were traditionally strong in North and West Africa, then Great Britain was able to conquer the entire Indian subcontinent and the adjacent South Asian lands.
However, in Indochina, the interests of centuries-old rivals collided. Great Britain conquered Burma, and France conquered the entire east of the Indochina Peninsula, that is, present-day Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia. Since the colonized territory had a population of many millions and there were ancient traditions of its own statehood, the French authorities were concerned about maintaining their power in the colonies and, on the other hand, ensuring the protection of the colonies from encroachments from other colonial powers. It was decided to compensate for the insufficient number of troops of the mother country and problems with their manning by means of the formation of colonial troops. So in the French colonies in Indochina, their own armed units appeared, recruited from representatives of the indigenous population of the peninsula.
It should be noted that the French colonization of Eastern Indochina was carried out in several stages, overcoming the fierce resistance of the monarchs who ruled here and the local population. In 1858-1862. the Franco-Vietnamese war continued. French troops, supported by the Spanish colonial corps from the neighboring Philippines, landed on the coast of South Vietnam and captured vast territories, including the city of Saigon. Despite the resistance, the Vietnamese emperor had no choice but to cede three southern provinces to the French. This is how the first colonial possession of Cochin Khin appeared, located in the south of the modern Socialist Republic of Vietnam.
In 1867, a French protectorate was established over neighboring Cambodia. In 1883-1885, as a result of the Franco-Chinese war, the central and northern provinces of Vietnam also fell under French rule. Thus, the French possessions in Eastern Indochina included the Cochin Khin colony in the extreme south of Vietnam, directly subordinate to the Ministry of Trade and Colonies of France, and three protectorates under the Ministry of Foreign Affairs - Annam in the center of Vietnam, Tonkin in the north of Vietnam and Cambodia. In 1893, as a result of the Franco-Siamese war, a French protectorate was established over the territory of modern Laos. Despite the resistance of the Siamese king to submission to the French influence of the principalities in the south of modern Laos, in the end the French colonial army managed to force Siam not to obstruct the further conquest of lands in eastern Indochina by France.
When French boats appeared in the Bangkok area, the Siamese king made an attempt to turn to the British for help, but the British, who were occupied with the colonization of neighboring Burma, did not intercede for Siam, and as a result, the king had no choice but to recognize the French rights to Laos, formerly a vassal in relation to to Siam, and the rights of the British to another former vassal territory - the Shan principality, which became part of British Burma. In return for territorial concessions, England and France guaranteed the inviolability of the Siamese borders in the future and abandoned plans for further territorial expansion into Siam.
Thus, we see that part of the territory of French Indochina was governed directly as a colony, and part retained the semblance of independence, since local governments were retained there, headed by monarchs who recognized the French protectorate. The specific climate of Indochina significantly hampered the daily use of military units recruited in the metropolis to carry out garrison service and fight the constantly flaring uprisings. It was also not worth relying completely on the weak and unreliable troops of local feudal lords loyal to the French government. Therefore, the French military command in Indochina came to the same decision that it made in Africa - about the need to form local formations of the French army from among the representatives of the indigenous population.
Back in the 18th century, Christian missionaries, including French ones, began to penetrate the territory of Vietnam. As a result of their activities, a certain part of the country's population adopted Christianity and, as one would expect, it was it during the period of colonial expansion that the French began to use as direct assistants in the seizure of Vietnamese territories. In 1873-1874. there was a short experiment in the formation of units of the Tonkin militia from among the Christian population.
Tonkin is the extreme north of Vietnam, the historical province of Bakbo. It borders on China and is inhabited not only by the Vietnamese proper, but rightly by the Vietnamese, but also by representatives of other ethnic groups. By the way, when recruiting French colonial units from among the local population, no preferences were made with respect to a particular ethnic group, and servicemen were recruited from among representatives of all ethnic groups living in French Indochina.
The French conquered the province of Tonkin later than other Vietnamese lands, and the Tonkin militia did not last long, being disbanded after the evacuation of the French expeditionary force. Nevertheless, the experience of its creation turned out to be valuable for the further formation of the French colonial troops, if only because it showed the presence of a certain mobilization potential of the local population and the possibility of using it in French interests. In 1879, the first units of the French colonial forces, recruited from the representatives of the indigenous population, appeared in Cochin and Annam. They received the name of the Annam shooters, but were also called the Cochin or Saigon shooters.
When the French Expeditionary Force again landed in Tonkin in 1884, the first units of Tonkin Riflemen were created under the leadership of the French Marine Corps officers. The corps of Tonkin light infantry took part in the French conquest of Vietnam, suppression of the resistance of the local population, and the war with neighboring China. Note that the Qing Empire had its own interests in North Vietnam and considered this part of Vietnam's territory as a vassal in relation to Beijing. The French colonial expansion in Indochina could not but provoke opposition from the Chinese authorities, but the military and economic capabilities of the Qing Empire left it no chance of maintaining its positions in the region. The resistance of the Chinese troops was suppressed and the French seized the territory of Tonkin without any problems.
The period from 1883 to 1885 for the French colonial troops in Indochina was characterized by a bloody war against the Chinese troops and the remnants of the Vietnamese army. The Black Flag Army was also a fierce enemy. This is how the armed formations of the Thai-speaking Zhuang people were called in Tonkin, who invaded the province from neighboring China and, in addition to outright criminality, also went over to a guerrilla war against the French colonialists. Against the Black Flag rebels, led by Liu Yongfu, the French colonial command began to use Tonkin rifle units as auxiliary forces. In 1884, the regular units of the Tonkin Riflemen were created.
The Tonkin Expeditionary Force, commanded by Admiral Amedey Courbet, included four companies of the Annam Riflemen from Cochin, each of which was attached to a French Marine battalion. Also, the corps included an auxiliary unit of the Tonkin Riflemen numbering 800 people. However, since the French command could not provide the proper level of armament for the Tonkin riflemen, initially they did not play a serious role in the hostilities. General Charles Millau, who succeeded Admiral Courbet as commander, was a staunch supporter of the use of local units, only under the command of French officers and sergeants. For the purposes of the experiment, companies of the Tonkin Riflemen were organized, each of which was headed by a French Marine captain. In March - May 1884. The Tonkin Riflemen took part in a number of military expeditions and were increased in number to 1,500 people.
Seeing the successful participation of the Tonkin Riflemen in the March and April 1884 campaigns, General Millau decided to give these units an official status and created two regiments of Tonkin Riflemen. Each regiment consisted of 3,000 servicemen and consisted of three battalions of four companies. In turn, the number of the company reached 250 people. All units were commanded by experienced French Marine officers. This is how the combat path of the First and Second Regiments of the Tonkin Riflemen began, the order for the creation of which was signed on May 12, 1884. Experienced French officers who had previously served in the Marine Corps and who had taken part in numerous military operations were appointed commanders of the regiments.
Initially, the regiments were understaffed, as the search for qualified Marine Corps officers turned out to be a difficult task. Therefore, at first, the regiments existed only in nine companies, organized into two battalions. Further recruitment of military personnel, which continued throughout the summer of 1884, led to the fact that by October 30, both regiments were fully staffed with three thousand soldiers and officers.
In an effort to replenish the ranks of the Tonkin Riflemen, General Millau made, it seemed, the right decision - to admit deserters to their ranks - Zhuang from the Black Flag Army. In July 1884, several hundred Black Flag soldiers surrendered to the French and offered their services to the latter as mercenaries. General Millau allowed them to join the Tonkin Riflemen and formed a separate company from them. The former Black Flags were sent along the Dai River and took part in raids against Vietnamese insurgents and criminal gangs for several months. Millau was so convinced of the loyalty of the Zhuang soldiers to the French that he put the baptized Vietnamese Bo Hinh, hastily promoted to lieutenant in the Marine Corps, at the head of the company.
However, many French officers did not understand the confidence General Millau had shown in the Chuang deserters. And, as it turned out, not in vain. On the night of December 25, 1884, a whole company of Tonkin Riflemen, recruited from the former Black Flag soldiers, deserted, taking all their weapons and ammunition. Moreover, the deserters killed the sergeant so that the latter could not raise the alarm. After this unsuccessful attempt to include the Black Flag soldiers in the Tonkin Riflemen, the French command abandoned this idea of General Millau and never returned to it. On July 28, 1885, by order of General de Courcy, the Third Tonkin Rifle Regiment was created, and on February 19, 1886, the Fourth Tonkin Rifle Regiment was created.
Like other units of the French colonial troops, the Tonkin Riflemen were recruited according to the following principle. The rank and file, as well as junior command positions, are from among the representatives of the indigenous population, the officer corps and most of the non-commissioned officers are exclusively from among the French military personnel, primarily the marines. That is, the French military command did not fully trust the inhabitants of the colonies and was openly afraid of placing entire units under the command of the native commanders.
During 1884-1885. Tonkin Riflemen are active in battles with Chinese troops, acting together with units of the French Foreign Legion. After the end of the Franco-Chinese war, the Tonkin Riflemen participated in the destruction of Vietnamese and Chinese insurgents who did not want to lay down their arms.
Since, as they would say now, the criminogenic situation in French Indochina has traditionally not been particularly favorable, the Tonkin riflemen in many respects had to carry out functions that were rather close to those of the internal troops or the gendarmerie. Maintaining public order on the territory of colonies and protectorates, helping the authorities of the latter in the fight against crime and rebel movements become the main duties of the Tonkin Riflemen.
Due to the remoteness of Vietnam from the rest of the French colonies and from Europe in general, the Tonkin Riflemen are little involved in military operations outside the Asia-Pacific region itself. If Senegalese shooters, Moroccan gumiers or Algerian Zouaves were actively used in almost all wars in the European theater of operations, then the use of Tonkin shooters outside Indochina was, nevertheless, limited. At least in comparison with other colonial units of the French army - the same Senegalese riflemen or gumiers.
In the period from 1890s to 1914. Tonkin shooters are taking an active part in the fight against insurgents and criminals throughout French Indochina. Since the crime rate in the region was quite high, and serious gangs of criminals were operating in the countryside, the colonial authorities recruited military units to help the police and gendarmerie. The Tonkin arrows were also used to eliminate pirates operating on the Vietnamese coast. The sad experience of using defectors from the "Black Flag" forced the French command to send Tonkin Riflemen on combat operations exclusively accompanied by reliable detachments of the Marine Corps or the Foreign Legion.
Until the outbreak of the First World War, the Tonkin arrows did not have military uniforms as such and wore national clothes, although some orderliness was still present - trousers and tunics were made of blue or black cotton. Annam shooters wore white clothes of national cut. In 1900, the khaki color was introduced. The national Vietnamese bamboo hat continued after the introduction of the uniform until it was replaced with a cork helmet in 1931.
Tonkin arrows
With the outbreak of the First World War, French officers and sergeants who served in the units of the Tonkin Riflemen were recalled en masse to the metropolis and sent to the active army. Subsequently, one battalion of Tonkin Riflemen in full force participated in the battles at Verdun on the Western Front. However, the large-scale use of the Tonkin Riflemen in the First World War never followed. In 1915, a battalion from the Third Regiment of the Tonkin Riflemen was transferred to Shanghai to guard the French concession. In August 1918, three companies of the Tonkin Riflemen, as part of the combined battalion of the French colonial infantry, were transferred to Siberia to participate in the intervention against Soviet Russia.
Tonkin arrows in Ufa
On August 4, 1918 in China, in the city of Taku, the Siberian Colonial Battalion was formed, the commander of which was Malle, and the assistant commander was Captain Dunant. The history of the Siberian Colonial Battalion is a rather interesting page in the history of not only the Tonkin Riflemen and the French Army, but also the Civil War in Russia. On the initiative of the French military command, the soldiers recruited in Indochina were sent to the territory of Russia torn apart by the Civil War, where they fought against the Red Army. The Siberian battalion included the 6th and 8th companies of the 9th Hanoi Colonial Infantry Regiment, the 8th and 11th companies of the 16th Colonial Infantry Regiment, and the 5th Company of the Third Zouav Regiment.
The total number of units was more than 1,150 servicemen. The battalion took part in the offensive against the positions of the Red Guard near Ufa. On October 9, 1918, the battalion was reinforced by the Siberian Colonial Artillery Battery. In Ufa and Chelyabinsk, the battalion carried out garrison service and accompanied the trains. On February 14, 1920, the Siberian colonial battalion was evacuated from Vladivostok, its servicemen were returned to their military units. During the Siberian epic, the colonial battalion lost 21 servicemen killed and 42 wounded. Thus, colonial soldiers from distant Vietnam were noted in the harsh Siberian and Ural climate, having managed to make war with Soviet Russia. Even a few photographs have survived, testifying to the one and a half year stay of the Tonkin riflemen on the territory of Siberia and the Urals.
The period between the two world wars was marked by the participation of the Tonkin Riflemen in the suppression of endless uprisings that took place in various parts of French Indochina. Among other things, the arrows suppressed the riots of their own colleagues, as well as the military personnel of other colonial units stationed in the Vietnamese, Lao and Cambodian garrisons. In addition to serving in Indochina, the Tonkin Riflemen participated in the Rif War in Morocco in 1925-1926, served in Syria in 1920-1921. In 1940-1941. The Tonkins took part in border clashes with the Thai army (as we remember, Thailand initially maintained allied relations with Japan during World War II).
In 1945, all six regiments of the Tonkin and Annam Riflemen of the French colonial forces were disbanded. Many Vietnamese soldiers and sergeants continued to serve in French units until the second half of the 1950s, including fighting on the side of France in the Indochina War of 1946-1954. However, specialized divisions of Indo-Chinese riflemen were no longer created and the Vietnamese, Khmer and Lao loyal to the French served on a general basis in ordinary divisions.
The last military unit of the French army, formed precisely on the basis of the ethnic principle in Indochina, was the "Command of the Far East", which consisted of 200 military personnel recruited from the Vieta, Khmer and the representative of the Nung people. The team served for four years in Algeria, participating in the struggle against the national liberation movement, and in June 1960 it was also disbanded. If the British retained the famous Gurkhas, then the French did not retain the colonial units as part of the army of the mother country, limiting themselves to retaining the Foreign Legion as the main military unit for military operations in overseas territories.
However, the history of the use of representatives of ethnic groups of Indochina in the interests of Western states does not end with the dissolution of the Tonkin Riflemen. During the years of the Vietnam War, as well as the armed confrontation in Laos, the United States of America actively used the help of armed detachments of mercenaries, with the filing of the CIA operating against the communist formations of Vietnam and Laos and recruited from representatives of the mountain peoples of Vietnam and Laos, including the Hmong (for reference: the Hmong are one of the autochthonous Austro-Asian peoples of the Indochinese Peninsula, preserving an archaic spiritual and material culture and belonging to the linguistic group called "Miao-Yao" in domestic ethnography).
By the way, the French colonial authorities also actively used the highlanders to serve in intelligence units, auxiliary units that fought the rebels, because, firstly, the highlanders had a rather negative attitude towards the pre-colonial authorities of Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia, who oppressed the small mountain peoples, and secondly They were distinguished by a high level of military training, were perfectly oriented in the jungle and mountainous terrain, which made them indispensable scouts and guides of expeditionary forces.
Among the Hmong (Meo) people, in particular, came the famous General Wang Pao, who commanded the anti-communist forces during the Laotian War. Wang Pao's career began just in the ranks of the French colonial troops, where after the end of World War II he even managed to rise to the rank of lieutenant before joining the royal army of Laos. Wang Pao died in exile only in 2011.
Thus, in the 1960s - 1970s. the tradition of using Vietnamese, Cambodian and Lao mercenaries in their own interests from France was taken over by the United States of America. For the latter, however, it cost a lot - after the victory of the communists in Laos, the Americans had to fulfill their promises and provide shelter to thousands of Hmongs - former soldiers and officers who fought against the communists, as well as their families. Today, more than 5% of the total number of all representatives of the Hmong people live in the United States, and in fact, in addition to this small nationality, representatives of other peoples, whose relatives fought against the communists in Vietnam and Laos, have found shelter in the United States.
