The economic penetration of the British into Egypt began with the signing in 1838 of the Anglo-Turkish Free Trade Treaty, which granted European merchants the right to trade in Egypt, which was formally part of the Ottoman Empire.
After the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, Egypt became especially attractive to world powers, whose governments understood that the canal would be controlled by whoever would be the master of the country. In 1875, the ruler of Egypt, Khedive Ismail, was forced to sell his stake in the Suez Canal to Great Britain to solve the country's financial problems. This and the enslaving lending of the Egyptian government by Europeans led to the direct intervention of the British and French in the administration of the country. [1]
Khedive Ismail
The current situation caused the rise of the national movement in the patriotic strata of society. In 1879, the first Egyptian political party "Watan" ("Fatherland") emerged, which put forward the slogan "Egypt for the Egyptians." [2] In September 1881, units of the Cairo garrison led by Colonel Ahmad Orabi Pasha revolted, putting forward general political demands. Colonel Orabi Pasha became Minister of War, concentrating virtually all state power in his hands. Taking advantage of the contradictions between the European powers, Orabi Pasha deprived them of control over the country's finances, and also opposed British interference in the internal affairs of Egypt.
Ahmad Orabi Pasha
In response to the September uprising, the European powers began to prepare for an armed intervention. In January 1882, representatives of Great Britain and France sent a note to the government of Egypt, in which they reserved the right to interfere in the internal affairs of the country. The government, which accepted the Anglo-French note and agreed with it, was forced to resign. In February 1882, a new Egyptian government was formed. One of the first steps taken by the new Egyptian government was the abolition of Anglo-French financial controls. [3]
In 1882, as a result of the Anglo-Egyptian war provoked by Great Britain, a British colonial regime was established in the country: Orabi Pasha, who was defeated on September 13 in the battle of Tell el-Kabir, was exiled to Ceylon, and the power of the Khedive was so limited that the country actually ruled by a British diplomatic agent and consul general. [4] "… Egypt after the start of the war was removed from the jurisdiction of the Istanbul government and proclaimed the protectorate of the occupying power" [5]. Despite the fact that Egypt was formally part of the Ottoman Empire, it became a British colony: Great Britain turned Egypt into a raw material appendage of its industry. [6]
Back in January 1882, the Egyptian parliament adopted the country's constitution, which “was an attempt to establish a system of national political institutions in the face of European threats to Egypt's autonomy. Establishing their control over Egypt, the British colonialists first abolished the constitution of 1882. The new "Basic Law" (1883) provided for the creation of two new semi-parliamentary institutions on the Indian model - the Legislative Council and the General Assembly. Most important in the British "Basic Law" was the restoration of the absolute power of the Khedive. Thus, the achievements of the Egyptian constitutional movement were eliminated, and the country was thrown back to the old despotic system. The British system of indirect government (“We do not rule Egypt, we only govern its rulers”) was based on the strong power of the Khedive, who was completely dependent on them.”[7]
The de facto occupation of Egypt by Great Britain caused tensions in Anglo-French relations. The contradictions between Great Britain and France over Egypt were settled only in 1904 in connection with the formation of the Entente. [8]
On December 14, 1914, Great Britain declared Egypt its protectorate, separating it from the Ottoman Empire and deposed Khedive Abbas II Hilmi, however, during the First World War, the Egyptian question remained open.
Khedive Abbas II
During the hostilities on the Sinai Front, which unfolded in January 1915, the Turkish army occupied the Sinai Peninsula and attempted to force the Suez Canal, which, however, ended in failure. In 1916, Turkish troops, with the participation of German-Austrian units, made two more attempts to force the Suez Canal, but they did not lead to success either. After that, British forces in Egypt went on the offensive, displacing the enemy from the Sinai Peninsula and occupying El Arish on December 21, 1916. They began preparations for an offensive on the Palestinian front. [9]
In February 1918, the War Cabinet finally spoke out against the annexation and for the preservation of the protectorate. [10] Hussein Kamil, who took the title of Sultan, became the protege of the British. The highest British official in the country - a diplomatic agent and consul general, in whose hands all real power in the country was concentrated - began to be called the High Commissioner.
Sultan Hussein
As the end of the war approached, the national bourgeoisie realized more and more clearly that under the conditions of the colonial regime it would not be able to compete with the powerful bourgeoisie of the mother country, under the onslaught of which it would have to give up its positions in the Egyptian market. [11]
At the end of the war, only the court camarilla, a narrow stratum of the comprador bourgeoisie and part of the landed aristocracy, which essentially opposed the entire nation, were interested in maintaining British rule. [12]
At the end of 1918, the ex-vice-president of the Egyptian Legislative Assembly, Saad Zaglul [13], with his supporters who founded the Wafd (Delegation) party [14], began a campaign to collect signatures under the Charter of National Requirements, the most important of which was giving Egypt full independence.
Saad Zaglul
A powerful anti-British uprising broke out in the country in 1919. [15] It was preceded by a mass demonstration in Cairo against the arrest of Wafd leader Zaglyul. By concentrating a large army in Egypt, the British suppressed this uprising. [16]
Having suppressed the popular uprising, the British government at the end of 1919 sent a commission to Egypt headed by Colonial Minister Alfred Milner. Having studied the state of affairs on the spot, she came to the conclusion that it was necessary to change the form of colonial rule. The Commission recommended recognizing the independence of Egypt, subject to the conclusion of an agreement with it, which would guarantee the inviolability of the military-strategic, political and economic interests of Great Britain. She also advised, through some concessions, to split its right wing from the national liberation movement and to achieve cooperation with it. [17]
A. Milner
However, the stubborn attempts of Great Britain during 1920-1921. to conclude an agreement with the nationalists, which would ensure her "special rights" in Egypt in the spirit of the "Milner plan", failed and caused a new uprising in November-December 1921. For the fact that the leadership of "Wafda" rejected the agreement, it was in 1920-1923. was persecuted. So, in 1921-1923. the leadership of the party was changed four times. The popular uprising of 1921 was brutally suppressed. [18]
Both uprisings were serious blows to British rule in Egypt. On February 28, 1922, the British government published a declaration on the abolition of the protectorate and on the recognition of Egypt as an "independent and sovereign state." At the same time, Great Britain retained the rights to defend Egypt, protect the imperial routes passing through the country, and "co-rule" Sudan. In Egypt, the British occupation troops, advisers, and a high commissioner remained. The UK's economic position was not affected. However, British dominance ended. On April 19, 1923, the Egyptian constitution was adopted, in accordance with which the country became a constitutional monarchy with a bicameral parliament. [19]
