Head of the Government of Prussia
Bismarck was not ambassador in Paris for long, he was soon recalled due to the acute government crisis in Prussia. In September 1862, Otto von Bismarck took over as head of government, and a little later became Minister-President and Foreign Minister of Prussia. As a result, Bismarck was the permanent head of the Prussian government for eight years. All this time, he carried out a program that he formulated in the 1850s and finally defined in the early 1860s.
Bismarck told a liberal-dominated parliament that the government would collect taxes in line with the old budget, as parliamentarians were unable to pass the budget due to internal conflicts. Bismarck pursued this policy in 1863-1866, which allowed him to carry out a military reform, which seriously strengthened the combat capability of the Prussian army. It was conceived by the regent Wilhelm, who was dissatisfied with the existence of the Landwehr - the territorial troops, which in the past played an important role in the fight against Napoleon's army and were the mainstay of the liberal public. At the suggestion of the Minister of War Albrecht von Roon (it was on his patronage that Otto von Bismarck was appointed Minister-President of Prussia), it was decided to increase the size of the regular army, introduce a 3-year active service in the army and 4-year in the cavalry, and take measures to accelerate mobilization measures etc. However, these measures required a lot of money, it was necessary to increase the military budget by a quarter. This met with resistance from the liberal government, parliament and the public. Bismarck, on the other hand, formed his cabinet from conservative ministers, and used the "hole in the constitution", according to which the mechanism of the government's action during the constitutional crisis was not determined. By forcing parliament to obey, Bismarck also curtailed the press and took steps to curtail opposition opportunities.
In a speech before the budget committee of parliament, Bismarck uttered the famous words that have gone down in history: “Prussia must gather its forces and keep them until a favorable moment, which has already been missed several times. The borders of Prussia in accordance with the Vienna agreements do not favor the normal life of the state; not by the speeches and decisions of the majority, important issues of our time are being resolved - this was a major mistake in 1848 and 1849 - but with iron and blood. " This program - "with iron and blood", Bismarck consistently carried out in the unification of the German lands.
Bismarck's foreign policy was highly successful. Much criticism of the liberals was caused by the support of Russia during the Polish Uprising of 1863. Russian Foreign Minister Prince A. M. Gorchakov and Adjutant General of the Prussian King Gustav von Alvensleben signed a convention in St. the army is on the territory of Russia.
Victory over Denmark and Austria
In 1864, Prussia defeated Denmark. The war was caused by the problem of the status of the Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein - the southern provinces of Denmark. Schleswig and Holstein were in personal union with Denmark. At the same time, ethnic Germans predominated in the population of the regions. Prussia had already fought with Denmark for duchies in 1848-1850, but then retreated under pressure from the great powers - England, Russia and France, which guaranteed the inviolability of the Danish monarchy. The reason for the new war was the childlessness of the Danish king Frederick VII. In Denmark, female inheritance was allowed, and Prince Christian Glucksburg was recognized as the successor of Frederick VII. However, in Germany, they inherited only through the male line, and the Duke Frederick of Augustinburg made a claim to the throne of the two duchies. In 1863, Denmark adopted a new constitution, which established the unity of Denmark and Schleswig. Then Prussia and Austria stood up for the interests of Germany.
The strengths of the two powerful powers and small Denmark were incomparable, and she was defeated. Great powers this time did not show much interest in Denmark. As a result, Denmark relinquished its rights to Lauenburg, Schleswig and Holstein. Lauenburg became the property of Prussia for monetary compensation. The duchies were declared joint possessions of Prussia and Austria (Gastein Convention). Berlin ruled Schleswig and Vienna ruled Holstein. This was an important step towards the unification of Germany.
The next step towards the unification of Germany under Prussian rule was the Austro-Prussian-Italian War (or German War) in 1866. Bismarck originally planned to use the intricacies of control of Schleswig and Holstein for a conflict with Austria. Holstein, which entered the "administration" of Austria, was separated from the Austrian Empire by a number of German states and the territory of Prussia. Vienna offered Berlin both duchies in exchange for the most modest territory on the Prussian-Austrian border from Prussia. Bismarck refused. Then Bismarck accused Austria of violating the terms of the Gastein Convention (the Austrians did not stop anti-Prussian agitation in Holstein). Vienna put this question before the Allied Sejm. Bismarck warned that this was only a matter for Prussia and Austria. However, the Diet continued the discussion. Then on April 8, 1866, Bismarck annulled the convention and proposed to reform the German Confederation, excluding Austria from it. On the same day, the Prussian-Italian alliance was concluded, directed against the Austrian Empire.
Bismarck paid much attention to the situation in Germany. He put forward a program for the creation of the North German Union with the creation of a single parliament (on the basis of universal secret male suffrage), a unified armed forces under the leadership of Prussia. In general, the program seriously limited the sovereignty of individual German states in favor of Prussia. It is clear that most of the German states opposed this plan. The Sejm rejected Bismarck's proposals. On June 14, 1866, Bismarck declared the Sejm "null and void." 13 German states, including Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, Württemberg, opposed Prussia. However, Prussia was the first to mobilize and already on June 7, the Prussians began to push the Austrians out of Holstein. The Seim of the German Confederation decided to mobilize four corps - the contingent of the German Confederation, which was accepted by Prussia as a declaration of war. Of the states of the German Confederation, only Saxony managed to mobilize its corps on time.
On June 15, hostilities began between the mobilized Prussian army and the unmobilized allies of Austria. On June 16, the Prussians began the occupation of Hanover, Saxony and Hesse. On June 17, Austria declared war on Prussia to benefit Bismarck, who was trying to create the most favorable political environment. Now Prussia did not look like an aggressor. Italy entered the war on June 20. Austria was forced to wage a war on two fronts, which further worsened its position.
Bismarck managed to neutralize two main external threats - from Russia and France. Most of all, Bismarck feared Russia, which could stop the war with one expression of dissatisfaction. However, irritation with Austria, which prevailed in St. Petersburg, played into Bismarck's hands. Alexander II remembered Franz Joseph's behavior during the Crimean War and Buol's gross insult to Russia at the Paris Congress. In Russia they looked at it as a betrayal of Austria and did not forget it. Alexander decided not to interfere with Prussia, to settle scores with Austria. In addition, Alexander II highly appreciated the "service" rendered by Prussia in 1863 during the Polish uprising. True, Gorchakov did not want to give way to Bismarck so easily. But in the end, the king's opinion took up.
The situation with France was more complicated. The regime of Napoleon III, protecting its power, was guided by foreign policy adventures, which were supposed to distract the people from internal problems. Among such "small and victorious wars" were the Eastern (Crimean) War, which led to heavy losses of the French army and did not bring any benefits to the French people. In addition, Bismarck's plans to unite Germany around Prussia were a real threat to France. Paris benefited from a weak and fragmented Germany, where small states are involved in the orbit of the politics of three great powers - Austria, Prussia and France. To prevent the strengthening of Prussia, the defeat of Austria and the unification of Germany around the Kingdom of Prussia was a necessity for Napoleon III, which was determined by the tasks of national security.
To solve the problem of France, Bismarck visited the court of Napoleon III in 1865 and offered the emperor a deal. Bismarck made it clear to Napoleon that Prussia, in exchange for France's neutrality, would not protest against the inclusion of Luxembourg in the French Empire. This was not enough for Napoleon. Napoleon III hinted clearly at Belgium. However, such a concession threatened Prussia with serious troubles in the future. On the other hand, an outright refusal threatened war with Austria and France. Bismarck didn’t answer yes or no, and Napoleon didn’t raise this topic any more. Bismarck realized that Napoleon III had decided to remain neutral at the start of the war. The clash of two first-class European powers, according to the French emperor, should have led to a protracted and bloody war that would weaken both Prussia and Austria. They did not believe in the "lightning war" in Paris. As a result, France could get all the fruits of the war. Its fresh army, perhaps even without any struggle, could receive Luxembourg, Belgium, and the Rhine lands.
Bismarck realized that this was Prussia's chance. At the beginning of the war, France will be neutral, the French will wait. Thus, a quick war could radically change the situation in favor of Prussia. The Prussian army will quickly defeat Austria, will not suffer serious losses and will reach the Rhine before the French can bring the army to combat readiness and take retaliatory steps.
Bismarck understood that in order for the Austrian campaign to be lightning-fast, it was necessary to solve three problems. First, it was necessary to mobilize the army before the opponents, which was done. Secondly, to force Austria to fight on two fronts, to disperse its forces. Thirdly, after the very first victories, set Vienna with the minimum, most not burdensome requirements. Bismarck was ready to confine himself to the exclusion of Austria from the German Confederation, without presenting territorial and other requirements. He did not want to humiliate Austria, turning it into an implacable enemy who would fight to the last (in this case, the possibility of intervention by France and Russia increased dramatically). Austria was not supposed to interfere with the transformation of the impotent German Confederation into a new alliance of German states under the leadership of Prussia. In the future, Bismarck saw Austria as an ally. In addition, Bismarck feared that a severe defeat could lead to the collapse and revolution in Austria. This Bismarck did not want.
Bismarck was able to ensure that Austria fought on two fronts. The newly created Italian kingdom wanted to get Venice, the Venetian region, Trieste and Trento, which belonged to Austria. Bismarck entered into an alliance with Italy so that the Austrian army had to fight on two fronts: in the north against the Prussians, in the south against the Italians who were storming Venice. True, the Italian monarch Victor Emmanuel II hesitated, realizing that the Italian troops were weak to resist the Austrian Empire. Indeed, during the war itself, the Austrians inflicted a heavy defeat on the Italians. However, the main theater of operations was in the north.
The Italian king and his entourage were interested in the war with Austria, but they wanted guarantees. Bismarck gave them. He promised Victor Emmanuel II that Venice would be given over to Italy in the general world in any case, regardless of the situation in the southern theater of operations. Victor-Emmanuel still hesitated. Then Bismarck took a non-standard step - blackmail. He promised that he would turn to the Italian people over the head of the monarch and call for the help of popular Italian revolutionaries, folk heroes - Mazzini and Garibaldi. Then the Italian monarch made up his mind, and Italy became an ally that Prussia needed so much in the war with Austria.
I must say that the French emperor figured out the Italian map of Bismarck. His agents vigilantly watched all the diplomatic preparations and intrigues of the Prussian minister. Realizing that Bismarck and Victor-Emmanuel had conspired, Napoleon III immediately reported this to the Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph. He warned him about the danger of a war on two fronts and offered to prevent war with Italy by voluntarily surrendering Venice to her. The plan was sensible and could deal a serious blow to Otto von Bismarck's plans. However, the Austrian emperor and the Austrian elite lacked the discernment and willpower to take this step. The Austrian Empire refused to voluntarily cede Venice.
Napoleon III again nearly thwarted Bismarck's plans when he decisively announced to Italy that he did not want the conclusion of a Prussian-Italian alliance directed against Austria. Victor-Emmanuel could not disobey the French emperor. Then Bismarck visited France again. He argued that Vienna by refusing, at the suggestion of Paris, to cede Venice to Italy, was proving its arrogance. Bismarck inspired Napoleon that the war would be difficult and protracted, that Austria would leave only a small barrier against Italy, moving all the main forces against Prussia. Bismarck spoke of his "dream" to link Prussia and France with "friendship." In fact, Bismarck inspired the French emperor with the idea that Italy's performance in the south against Austria would not help Prussia much, and the war would still be difficult and stubborn, giving France the opportunity to find herself in the victor's camp. As a result, the French emperor Napoleon III lifted his ban on Italy. Otto von Bismarck won a major diplomatic victory. On April 8, 1866, Prussia and Italy entered into an alliance. At the same time, the Italians still bargained for 120 million francs from Bismarck.
Blitzkrieg
The beginning of the war on the southern front was unfortunate for Bismarck. A large Italian army was defeated by the inferior Austrians at the Battle of Cousteau (June 24, 1866). At sea, the Austrian fleet defeated the Italian at the Battle of Lisse (20 July 1866). This was the first ever naval battle of armored squadrons.
However, the outcome of the war was determined by the battle between Austria and Prussia. The defeat of the Italian army threatened the failure of all Bismarck's hopes. The talented strategist General Helmut von Moltke, who led the Prussian army, saved the situation. The Austrians were late with the deployment of the army. Maneuvering quickly and skillfully, Moltke got ahead of the enemy. On June 27-29, at Langensalz, the Prussians defeated Austria's allies - the Hanoverian army. On July 3, a decisive battle took place in the Sadov-Königgrets area (the battle of Sadov). Significant forces took part in the battle - 220 thousand Prussians, 215 thousand. Austrians and Saxons. The Austrian army under the command of Benedek suffered a heavy defeat, losing about 44 thousand people (the Prussians lost about 9 thousand people).
Benedek withdrew his remaining troops to Olmutz, covering the path to Hungary. Vienna was left without adequate protection. The Prussians got the opportunity, with some losses, to take the Austrian capital. The Austrian command was forced to begin the transfer of troops from the Italian direction. This allowed the Italian army to launch a counteroffensive in the Venetian region and Tyrol.
The Prussian king Wilhelm and the generals, intoxicated with a brilliant victory, demanded a further offensive and the capture of Vienna, which should have brought Austria to its knees. They longed for a triumphal parade in Vienna. However, Bismarck opposed almost everyone. He had to endure a fierce battle of words at the royal headquarters. Bismarck understood that Austria still had the ability to resist. Cornered and humiliated Austria will fight to the end. And the dragging out of the war threatens with major troubles, in particular, from France. In addition, the crushing defeat of the Austrian Empire did not suit Bismarck. It could lead to the development of destructive tendencies in Austria and make it an enemy of Prussia for a long time. Bismarck needed neutrality in the future conflict between Prussia and France, which he already saw in the near future.
In the armistice proposal that followed from the Austrian side, Bismarck saw a chance in achieving the goals he set. To break the king's resistance, Bismarck threatened to resign and said that he would not be held responsible for the disastrous path where the military was dragging William away. As a result, after several scandals, the king conceded.
Italy was also unhappy, wanting to continue the war and take over Trieste and Trento. Bismarck told the Italians that no one was stopping them from continuing to fight the Austrians one-on-one. Victor Emmanuel, realizing that he would be defeated alone, agreed only to Venice. Franz Joseph, fearing the fall of Hungary, also did not persist. On July 22, an armistice began; on July 26, a preliminary peace was signed in Nicholsburg. On August 23 in Prague he signed a peace treaty.
From top to bottom: the status quo before the war, hostilities and the aftermath of the Austro-Prussian War of 1866
Thus, Prussia achieved victory in the lightning campaign (Seven Weeks War). The Austrian Empire has retained its integrity. Austria recognized the dissolution of the German Confederation and refused to interfere in the affairs of Germany. Austria recognized the new alliance of German states led by Prussia. Bismarck was able to create the North German Confederation led by Prussia. Vienna renounced all rights to the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein in favor of Berlin. Prussia also annexed Hanover, the Electors of Hesse, Nassau and the old city of Frankfurt am Main. Austria paid Prussia an indemnity of 20 million Prussian thalers. Vienna recognized the transfer of the Venetian region to Italy.
One of the most important consequences of the victory of Prussia over Austria was the formation of the North German Confederation, which included more than 20 states and cities. All of them, according to the constitution of 1867, created a single territory with common laws and institutions (Reichstag, Union Council, State Supreme Commercial Court). The foreign and military policy of the North German Confederation, in fact, was transferred to Berlin. The Prussian king became the president of the union. External and internal affairs of the union were in charge of the Federal Chancellor appointed by the King of Prussia. Military alliances and customs treaties were concluded with the South German states. This was a big step towards the unification of Germany. All that remained was to defeat France, which was hindering the unification of Germany.
O. Bismarck and Prussian Liberals in the Caricature of Wilhelm von Scholz
