Previous articles in this series described how our newspapers described the heavy proportion of Germans in Germany who ate whale meat and sawdust margarine. But immediately after our troops entered the territory of Germany, for some reason it suddenly turned out that the German citizens were not at all there in complete poverty, hunger and cold, as the Soviet newspapers reported about it just a year ago, but on the contrary, they were swimming in luxury and enriched at the expense of the population of the occupied states [1]. Their apartments were filled with "things and products that the German army plundered in all cities of Europe" [2]. German citizens drank French wines, ate Dutch butter and Yugoslavian canned food, and bought Czech shoes, Bohemian crystal, French perfumes and Greek sweets in special stores.
British fighter "Hurricane", supplied to the USSR under lend-lease. Then in "Pravda" they wrote about him at all what A. S. wrote about him later. Yakovlev in his book "Stories of an Aircraft Designer".
Moreover, even after the victory in the Great Patriotic War, the Soviet press tried to support the negative attitude of Soviet citizens towards the civilian population of Germany [3] and the soldiers of the German army, who, according to the publications of Soviet newspapers, continued to commit atrocities, even being in captivity [4], so they were “morally corrupted”!
Judging by the articles from our newspapers, all Germans, without exception, were inherent in such vices as stinginess and heartlessness. As an example, we can cite the essay of the famous Kukryniksy "In Germany" [5], which depicted a vivid picture of the callousness and greed of the Germans, who behaved like a "flock of jackals" when dividing the abandoned repatriated property: "A decent-looking man in bowlers, with briefcases and with canes, curled and dressed in fashion, Frau eagerly threw themselves on the abandoned rags of their former slaves and slaves. They carefully examined these rags and, busily loading the baby carriages with them, took them home. On a clear summer day, against the backdrop of neatly trimmed green trees, these scenes of vile German greed looked especially disgusting. " However, there was no point in this. After all, we were already building relations with the “new Germany”, and there was no point in writing like that.
As for materials about life in the countries of warring Europe [6], in the first half of 1941 a picture that was well known to Soviet people unfolded there: “The shortage of some food products led to long queues at grocery stores in various parts of England. In Nottingham and Derby counties you have to queue up to get cheese, eggs, fish or meat”[7]. In Italy, "the sale and consumption of cream is prohibited", in Hungary "norms have been set for products that the peasants can store at home," and in Oslo, "there has been no meat for several weeks." From materials of this nature, Soviet readers could learn that the civilian population and military personnel of Great Britain were put on the brink of survival [8], “the wives and children of South Welsh miners give most of their food rations to husbands and fathers, so that they can do your job”[9]. Judging by the publications of Soviet newspapers, social inequality in Great Britain manifested itself even during the construction of bomb shelters [10], and in America, as usual, there were cases of lynching of blacks [11].
There were also published materials and ardent anti-British orientation, for example, Hitler's speech [12], which said that "wherever England appears, we will beat her" [13]. As for the United States, this country was practically on the brink of revolution [14].
But immediately after the outbreak of hostilities on the territory of the USSR and the conclusion of an agreement between the USSR and Great Britain on joint actions against Nazi Germany on July 12, 1941, as if by magic, publications of this kind from the pages of Soviet newspapers instantly disappeared, and one might think that blacks in the United States, lynching immediately ceased. So the picture of the Western world, drawn by the Soviet media, has dramatically changed once again - that is, everything, like in J. Orwell: "Oceania has always fought with Eastasia!" Immediately, for example, it turned out that “the brutal German fascism is surrounded by great democratic powers (that's even how! - approx. V. Sh.), on the industrial front it is opposed by the mighty defense industry of the Soviet Union, the military industry of Great Britain and the dominions, quickly the growing power of the United States of America”[15]. Moreover, if in one place the power of the United States was called “growing”, then literally a week later it “grew” so that it earned the epithet “huge” from Pravda, i.e. the newspaper wrote that "the enormous economic power of the United States is well known" [16]. Soviet newspapers published articles from which it was possible to learn that until recently, the people of Great Britain, who were completely starving, unanimously supported the Soviet people in their struggle against the invaders, and organized meetings here and there [17]. In honor of the victories of the Red Army and the conclusion of agreements between the USSR and Great Britain, the British unfolded festivities [18]. Pravda no longer remembered the famine that reigned in England. But newspapers began to create a positive image of the British military [19] and constantly talked about the fact that ordinary citizens of the United States and Great Britain are showing a keen interest in our country [20].
If we talk about the nature of informing the Soviet population about life in the United States, then we can distinguish the following pattern: the priority topic of most publications about this country in 1941-1945. was the build-up of the military power of the United States. Soviet central and regional newspapers regularly informed the population about the expansion of military production in the United States [21], while citing figures and details that boggled the imagination of Soviet readers with their accuracy. The population of the USSR regularly learned that "the US military industry in the past year produced 2 times more products than the military industry of all the Axis powers" [22]. In order to convince Soviet readers of the invincible power of our allies, newspapers used the following figures: “In 1943, 85,919 aircraft of all types were produced against 47,857 aircraft in 1942 … Among the ships built last year, there are 2 battleships, 45,000 each tons displacement each, 11 cruisers, 15 aircraft carriers, 50 escort aircraft carriers, 128 destroyers, 36 escort destroyers and 56 submarines”[23]. The data on the combat power of the US military forces continued to be published in full detail on the pages of Soviet newspapers in 1945: auxiliary vessels. The number of warships is now more than 3 times the number of ships at the beginning of the war”[24]. That is, Soviet newspapers informed Soviet citizens in detail about the development of the military sector of industry and about the buildup of the US armed forces. Another proof of this fact is the publication in the Soviet central [25] and regional newspapers [26] of information on deliveries under Lend-Lease, where even the number of delivered millions of pairs of shoes from the USA, England and Canada was reported, that is, a top secret was given., in military terms, information! However, why this happened precisely in 1944 is quite understandable. It was obvious that victory was not far off, and Stalin needed, on the one hand, to show his people how much the Allies supplied us with, and on the other hand, to show the same to our enemies. Like, no matter how hard you try, you cannot defeat us!
One of the articles in Pravda about the growing military power of the United States.
At the same time, the propaganda of the military-technical achievements of the United States, as well as of their American scientific potential, was truly comprehensive in the Soviet press and took place not only on the pages of central and local newspapers, but also in a variety of magazines, including such a popular magazine as "Technology for youth". There, reports on developments and scientific discoveries made in this country were printed practically from issue to issue. Moreover, it is interesting that the newspaper Stalinskoe Znamya began to publish photographs of the latest American warships and, in particular, the battleship Washington, even before the United States was attacked by Japan and became a participant in the war and an ally of the USSR [27].
At the same time, such propaganda itself was supplemented by the life experience of the citizens of the USSR themselves, as well as soldiers and officers who directly possessed information on this issue, since during the war they constantly encountered equipment and weapons supplied from England and the United States. These were tanks and artillery, the famous "jeeps", "doji" and "Studebaker", more advanced than Soviet cars, aircraft, radio stations, wheeled-tracked armored personnel carriers (which the USSR industry did not produce), while the air defense of Moscow was carried out by the British Spitfire fighters. The USA supplied the USSR with high-quality aviation gasoline and industrial diamonds, multi-ton presses that stamped the towers of the best tank of the Second World War, the Soviet T-34, many types of valuable military raw materials and rolled metal products. All this confirmed in the minds of people the information from newspapers and magazines that the USA is the most advanced country in all respects and that the newspapers report about its achievements is absolutely true!
Thus, it was our Soviet press, along with the direct contacts of Soviet citizens with citizens of Western democracies with the industrial products of Western countries, that created around the United States the aura of a technically powerful and highly developed power, with which it later had to fight after the war during the period of persecution of “low worship before the West ". It was then that, in opposition to the "pernicious" influence of the West, the struggle for priorities in scientific and geographical discoveries, in technical inventions and cultural achievements would begin in the Soviet Union. However, much of the time will already be lost. Moreover, without realizing it, Soviet ideologists will follow the already beaten path in this struggle and will repeat the theses and arguments of the Slavophiles, supporters of a special, Russian path in history. That is, all those whom in 1920 and 1930 they mercilessly scourged as great-power nationalists and chauvinists, which also will not go unnoticed among quite intelligent and educated people, whose opinion should not be neglected at all.
During the war years, it was completely lost sight of the fact that the United States and England still remain countries with a social and economic system different from the USSR, and that today's friend could become an enemy tomorrow, which was soon confirmed. The slightest change in the political situation in this case would lead to the need now not to praise your yesterday's ally, but to scold him, and this would require the destruction of the country's population of the previously established information stereotype, which is always an extremely difficult and costly task. However, the Soviet leaders apparently firmly believed in the power of both their newspaper propaganda and the repressive organs, and believed that all the costs of ineptly informing the population with their help could be successfully overcome. Therefore, no "praise" to such a powerful ally in this regard is excessive right now. Thus, in 1943, the Soviet press published, for example, publications devoted to the tenth anniversary of the establishment of diplomatic relations between the USSR and the United States, extremely optimistic in their content. In them, in particular, it was noted that "Soviet-American relations over these 10 years have become more and more friendly, and" Americans can rejoice in the program of friendship with Russia that President Roosevelt began to carry out 10 years ago "[28]. Moreover, the Soviet press no longer wrote about any proletarian revolution that was about to break out in the United States, as well as about the plight of blacks and Indians. This topic immediately became irrelevant. But the fact that the prospects for friendship between the United States and the Soviet Union in the post-war period are very favorable [29] was constantly reported in the newspapers. Moreover, in order to strengthen sympathy for US citizens, they wrote that Americans are very interested in Soviet culture [30], admire the successes of Soviet medicine [31], and even began to celebrate memorable dates for Soviet citizens [32]. At the same time, no measure was observed neither in those years when our press predicted the United States a complete collapse and imminent death, nor at a time when, by force of circumstances, Britain and the United States became our allies in the anti-Hitler coalition!
Such materials were supplemented by literary works, and, in particular, the science fiction novel by A. Kazantsev, The Arctic Bridge, published in the Tekhnika-Youth magazine. The main theme of which was based on the idea of Soviet-American cooperation that began during the war years, friendship and mutual understanding between our states [33]. It should be borne in mind that the power of the artistic word is much superior to the journalistic genre. That is, it is necessary to note the variety of means used to convey to the Soviet population the idea of cooperation with the United States. Meanwhile, in real politics, nothing of the kind was even mentioned, and our leaders and propagandists should understand this and reflect this situation in the press accordingly, and not pass off wishful thinking.
Here, however, it should be noted that Soviet newspapers during the war years, as in previous times, very sensitively reacted to the slightest inconsistencies that arose in the foreign policy arena and the emergence of any contradictions between the USSR and the USA, which immediately caused the appearance of publications of critical content on the pages of Soviet newspapers. … Thus, in 1945, they again began to publish materials about the plight of American workers [34], and only because the positions of our countries did not coincide on the issues of the post-war world order. Then, in the pages of Pravda, a lively controversy unfolded over the book by Walter Lippman, "US Military Aims," in which he put forward his ideas in this area. According to the material published in Pravda [35], “Lippmann divides the world into several geographic centers around which he draws orbits: one around the United States and calls it the“Atlantic Commonwealth of Nations”, the other around the USSR and calls it the“Russian sphere”, third - around China; he foresees the creation of the fourth in the future in the region of India and Muslim countries. " Since this point of view ran counter to the foreign policy goals of the Soviet government, it was immediately sharply criticized. For example, someone A. Georgiev wrote that "Lippmann's orbits are a complete fiction", since "any attempt to build a world without the participation of the Soviet Union and against it is fraught with dire consequences for mankind." Then Pravda published Lippmann's answer, which, however, was also heavily criticized [36]. And after all, by the way, this is how it turned out in the end. Lippmann looked into the water. But … our leaders thought differently, so only the laziest journalist did not defame him in the newspapers then …
Then, in Soviet newspapers, critical materials began to appear about alleged anti-Soviet publications in the American and European press [37], the content of which was at odds with the image of our country created in those years by the Soviet government as a democratic state and a peacemaking state. For example, it was reported that “with a tenacity worthy of better application, the American newspaper The New York Times has repeatedly stated that there are“totalitarian regimes”in Bulgaria, Romania and Hungary. [38]Articles were published on the anti-Soviet sentiments of a number of American and British politicians [39]. However, at that time, such articles on the pages of Soviet newspapers did not appear often and looked like a kind of "trial balls".
At the same time, on the pages of the Soviet press, the Soviet Union was positioned as a point of intersection of all world foreign policy interests of all countries, and evoked either total hatred or the most boundless love. There was simply no middle way! And that's what's sad. Now it's the same! No matter what information portal you look at, either we “pulled everyone”, or everyone is offended and deceived. A very superficial, black and white vision of the world.
This was evidenced by such materials as the responses of the foreign press to the events in the USSR, the vastness of the geography of which involuntarily made a very strong impression [40], and most importantly, due to the fact that these were responses published in the press, a complete impression of their reliability was created. as well as the reliability of all other materials published in Soviet newspapers. First of all, this concerned those materials of foreign newspapers, which spoke about the successes of our troops in hostilities against the Nazis [41], and especially a lot of them appeared in 1941-1942. - and why exactly during this period is also understandable. From them, Soviet people learned that “the Russians have millions of soldiers and colossal resources, their army is growing stronger every day” [42], that “the Red Army is driving the Germans from their native land … Russia is still the only front from which a favorable information”[43]. Moreover, its invincibility, judging by the materials of Soviet newspapers, was recognized even by the Japanese and Romanians [44]. And already at the very beginning of the war, the technical and military equipment of our army "surpassed all expectations" [45] of foreign journalists. It should be noted here that the pages of our newspapers have never published materials from the foreign press with critical remarks about the conduct of military operations by the Red Army. But during the period when our troops were experiencing military failures, no responses from the foreign press about the course of the war on our territory were printed at all, as if they were completely absent!
Speaking about the nature of the presentation of materials from the foreign press on the pages of Soviet newspapers, it is necessary to pay attention to the specifics of the creation of the image of Stalin as the leader of the country, depicted in these messages. Although some researchers note a decrease in the number of praises addressed to the nationwide leader during the war years [46], from the responses of the foreign press that appeared on the pages of our newspapers, this is not at all visible. According to the materials of Soviet newspapers, foreign media tended to speak enthusiastically about Stalin's role in the leadership of hostilities [47], the military skill of the Soviet leader was known even in Mexico, which was evident, for example, from numerous publications in the Todo magazine [48]. Soviet readers could once again be convinced that they had nothing to fear, because “Stalin's genius illuminated the world” [49]. It turned out that foreign journalists admired Stalin's personality in the same way as the entire Soviet people. For example, it was reported that "the radio commentator Henle stated that Stalin's remark about the important contribution of the United States and England to the war shows that Stalin is a great political leader and a realist" [50], i.e. in other words, the foreign press was characterized by the same manner of presenting materials about Soviet realities as the Soviet one, although in reality this was far from the case!
It is sad that the tendency of the Soviet media to view everything that happens in the world through the prism of internal political events and their own outlook on life was not only ridiculous, but most importantly, it did not bring any benefit to the Soviet propaganda system in conducting agitation campaigns aimed at enemy troops during the war years. On the contrary, it prevented her from achieving her goals. For example, F. Vergasov [51] speaks about it in his work [51], who analyzed the methods and techniques of our propaganda against the servicemen of the German army during the war. In his opinion, in this regard, they turned out to be absolutely ineffective. Field Marshal F. Paulus also spoke about the ineffectiveness of Soviet propaganda methods against soldiers of the German army: “In the first months of the war, your propaganda addressed in its leaflets to German workers and peasants dressed in soldier's greatcoats, urging them to lay down their arms and flee to the Red Army. I read your flyers. How many have come over to you? Just a bunch of deserters. Traitors are in every army, including yours. This does not say anything and does not prove anything. And if you want to know who supports Hitler the most, it is our workers and peasants. It was they who brought him to power and proclaimed the leader of the nation. It was with him that people from the outskirts of the alleys, parvenu, became the new masters. It can be seen that in your theory of the class struggle, ends do not always meet”[52].
Interestingly, in 1945, Soviet newspapers wrote very sparingly about the nuclear bombing of the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, only because the coverage of these events ran counter to the foreign policy of the Soviet government at that time. In addition, publications about these events could destroy the image of the United States as a peacekeeping state, created by Soviet newspapers, if the Soviet people knew about the real consequences of these bombings. In particular, the central press did not publish any materials related to this topic on its pages, and, accordingly, the regional newspapers did not write about this either.
It is sad but true that along with numerous distortions of reality and absurdities, Soviet newspapers (naturally, according to instructions from “above”), just as in the 30s, slipped to the most blatant lies and suppression of truly outrageous facts, which, meanwhile, just and should be used for the purposes of anti-fascist propaganda.
For example, the Soviet press did not report anything about the terrorist raid on Stalingrad on August 23, 1942. Both in terms of the number of aircraft involved in this operation and in terms of the weight of bombs dropped on the city, this was the most massive German air raid on Soviet territory since the beginning of the war. The English historian A. Clarke later wrote that some crews managed to make three sorties, and more than half of the bombs dropped on the city were incendiary [53]. Due to the fact that the summer was very hot and dry, the use of just such bombs to create massive hotbeds of fires turned out to be very effective. Almost 42 thousand buildings or 85% of the housing stock of Stalingrad were destroyed or burned down, and how many people died at the same time is impossible to count, because the city was overflowing with evacuees and refugees.
“Everything that could burn was tortured: houses, fences, trams, steamers,” the historian D. B. Khazanov [54] memoirs of the front-line writer A. V. Ivankina. - Oil spilled along the Volga was burning. The fire roared, devouring everything and taking the remaining oxygen from the air, which, mixed with the smoke, became unfit for breathing. Those who did not burn down or did not receive severe burns died from suffocation in the basements and rubble of burnt houses. On some burning streets, fire engines could not pass: they were so hot that there were cases of explosion of gas tanks."
Meanwhile, what could be learned these days from the messages of the Soviet Information Bureau? Yes, only that on August 23, fighting in the Kotelnikovo area, as well as south of Krasnodar, continued, that the prisoner Erich Weikheld [55] reported that only a few people remained of his company and … that's all! Moreover, neither in the morning nor in the evening reports of August 25th the bombing of Stalingrad was not reported! The most impressive was a letter from Enrico Calluchi to Milan, picked up on the battlefield, where he wrote that they were attacked by the Cossacks … 200 people died,and that the position of his unit is dire. [56] But again, it was said very sparingly about the battles at Stalingrad - the battles at Kotelnikovo and at the village of Kletskaya.
What or whom was our government afraid of, which classified this information, or rather, lowered it to the level of rumors and speculation? Of course, his people and the loss of credit on their part. Meanwhile, in a similar situation - the terrorist raid on Coventry - W. Churchill used his propaganda effect to the maximum. He not only made an appeal to England, and his government organized comprehensive assistance to the inhabitants of the destroyed city, but literally the whole country, on his order, was hung with posters with the inscription: "Remember Coventry!" It was possible to do the same with us, learn from the same British, declare a nationwide day of aid to Stalingrad, start collecting funds for its post-war reconstruction, install billboards along the roads with the inscription: "Remember Stalingrad!" This is what it was necessary to instill confidence that "the victory will be ours", but … nothing of the kind was done. The newspapers were silent. Billboards did not appear.
And this can hardly be justified by talking about the fact that, they say, "in times of disaster, all means are good, as long as they raise the spirits of the masses and thereby bring victory closer." No, not all! Not all of them, because the war is followed by a time of peace, people begin to look around them, remember, think and … gradually they completely stop trusting the “party press”, and with it the government itself, to which it belongs! Needless to say, any paradoxes in modern media are dangerous things and those who are responsible for these very funds in the country need to know this and not forget about it!
1. V. Shilkin. In Germany // Stalin's Banner. February 28, 1945. No. 41. C.1
2. B. Polevoy. In German houses // Pravda. March 16, 1945. No. 64. C.3
3. "May lilies" and weeds // Pravda. July 18, 1945. No. 170. C.4; Connections of German industrialists with American firms // Stalin Banner. August 2, 1945. No. 153. C.2
4. Investigation into the behavior of German prisoners of war in the United States // Pravda. February 16, 1945. No. 40. C.4
5. True. July 6, 1945. No. 160. C.3
6. Economic difficulties in Europe // Izvestia. January 10, 1941. No. 8. C.2; Economic difficulties in Europe // Izvestia. January 19, 1941. No. 16. C.2; Economic difficulties in Europe // Izvestia. January 26, 1941. No.21. C.2; Food difficulties in Europe // Izvestia. February 8, 1941. No. 32. C.2; Food difficulties in Europe // Izvestia. May 6, 1941. No. 105. C.2
7. Food difficulties in Europe // Izvestia. January 17, 1941. No. 14. C.2
8. Lack of meat in England // Stalin's Banner. January 5, 1941. No. 4. P.4; Reduction of food rations in the British army. // Stalin's Banner. March 5, 1941. No. 53. P.4; Reducing the norms for the issuance of products to teams and employees of the British Navy // Stalin Banner. March 6, 1941. No. 54. С.4
9. The position of the British miners // Stalin's Banner. March 15, 1941. No. 62. С.4
10. American correspondents on the situation in England // Izvestia. January 3, 1941. No. 2. C.2
11. Lynching of blacks // Izvestia. January 7, 1941. No5. C.2
12. Hitler's speech // Stalin's Banner. February 26, 1941. № 47. С.4
13. Hitler's speech // Stalin's Banner. February 1, 1941. No. 26. С.4;
14. Strike movement in the USA // Izvestia. January 25, 1941. No. 20. C.2; Strike at a military plant // Izvestia. February 2, 1941. No. 27. C.2; Strikes in the USA // Izvestia. February 5, 1941. No. 29. C.2; Strike movement in the USA // Izvestia. March 23, 1941. No. 69. C.2; Strike movement in the USA // Izvestia. March 28, 1941. No. 73. C.2; Struggle against the strike movement in the USA // Izvestia. April 2, 1941. No. 77. C.2; Strike movement in the USA // Izvestia. April 10, 1941. №84. C.2; Strike movement in the USA. // Izvestia. April 13, 1941. No. 87. C.2; Police fight against striking workers in the United States // Stalin Banner. January 16, 1941. No. 13. C.4; Strike movement in the USA // Stalin Banner. January 26, 1941. No.21. C.4; Strike movement in the USA. // Stalin's Banner. March 4, 1941. No. 52. C.4; The strike of bus drivers in New York // Stalin Banner. March 12, 1941. No. 59. C.4
15. Bottlenecks of the German industry // Izvestia. August 16, 1941. No. 193. C.2
16. Resources of the US industry // Izvestia. August 24, 1941. No.200. C.2
17. News. July 3, 1941. No. 155. C.1; Working people of England express solidarity with the Soviet Union // Izvestia. July 15, 1941. №165. C.4; Powerful movement of solidarity with the Soviet Union // Izvestia. July 24, 1941. No. 173. C.4
eighteen. Folk festivities in England dedicated to Anglo - Soviet cooperation. // Izvestia. August 5, 1941. No. 174. C.1; Rallies in England dedicated to the 27th anniversary of the Red Army // Pravda. March 4, 1945. No. 54. C.4
19. Okay Britain! // Truth. January 16, 1942. No. 16. C.2; The English soldier returns to his homeland // Pravda. March 16, 1945. No. 64. C.3
20. Teachers' seminars in England to familiarize themselves with the USSR // Pravda. March 13, 1942. No. 72. C.4; Interest in the United States to the Soviet Union // Pravda. March 28, 1942. No. 87. C.4; Research Conference in London. // Truth. February 6, 1943. No. 37. C.4; Interest in Soviet culture in the United States // Pravda. May 31, 1943. No. 138. C.4
21. Military production in the United States // Pravda. January 18, 1942. No. 18. C.4; The rate of arms production in the United States // Pravda. January 26, 1942. No. 26. C.4; Arms production in the USA // Pravda. January 16, 1943. No. 16. C.4; Launching a New American Aircraft Carrier // Pravda. January 25, 1943. No. 25. C.4; Construction of cargo ships in the USA // Pravda. March 8, 1943. No. 66. C.4; The growth of the sea power of England and the United States // Pravda. May 13, 1943. No. 122. C.4; Growth of the US Armed Forces // Pravda. June 16, 1943. No. 151. C.4; Appropriations for the Army and Navy in the United States // Pravda. June 20, 1943. No. 155. C.4; Construction of cargo flying boats in the USA // Pravda. January 7, 1944. No. 6. C.4; US military spending // Pravda. January 15, 1944. No. 13. C.4; Construction of new powerful warships in the USA // Pravda. January 27, 1944. No. 23. C.4; Successes of the American aircraft industry // Pravda. February 18, 1944. No. 42. C.4; Arms production in the USA in January // Pravda. February 27, 1944. No. 50. C.4; Military production in the USA in February // Pravda. March 31, 1944. No. 78. C.4; Construction of landing craft in the USA // Pravda. April 2, 1944. No. 80. C.4; Appropriations for US naval needs // Pravda. April 14, 1944. No. 90. C.4; US economy in the first half of 1944 // Truth. August 9, 1944. No. 190. C.4; Arms production in the USA // Pravda. January 5, 1945. No. 4. C.4; Expansion of the US naval development program // Pravda. March 10, 1945. No. 59. C.4; Production of new super-powerful bombers in the USA // Pravda. March 21, 1945. No. 68. C.4
22. Arms production in the USA in 1943 // Pravda. January 5, 1944. No. 4. C.4
23. Arms production in the USA // Pravda. January 30, 1944. No. 26. C.4
24. US Navy // Pravda. January 4, 1945. No. 3. C.4
25. On the supply of weapons, strategic raw materials, industrial equipment and food to the Soviet Union by the United States of America, Great Britain and Canada // Pravda. June 11, 1944. No. 140. C.1; On the supply of weapons, strategic raw materials, industrial equipment and food to the Soviet Union by the United States of America, Great Britain and Canada // Izvestia. June 11, 1944. No. 138. C.1
26. On the supply of weapons, strategic raw materials, industrial equipment and food to the Soviet Union by the United States of America, Great Britain and Canada // Stalin Banner. June 13, 1944. No. 116. C.1-2
27. Stalin's Banner. October 29, 1941. No. 255. C.2
28. A decade of establishing diplomatic relations between the United States and the USSR // Pravda. November 17, 1943. No. 283. C.1
29. Prospects for American-Soviet trade // Pravda. February 13, 1944. No. 38. C.4; Meeting of American-Soviet Friendship // Pravda. January 28, 1945. No.24. C.4
30. The growth of American-Soviet cultural ties // Pravda. October 22, 1944. No. 254. C.4
31. American newspaper about the successes of Soviet military medicine // Pravda. February 19, 1944. No. 43. C.4
32. Celebration in the United States of the 25th anniversary of the Red Army // Pravda. February 25, 1943. No. 56. C.4; Preparation in the USA for the Day of the Red Army // Pravda. February 20, 1944. No. 44. C.4; Meeting in New York in honor of the Red Army // Pravda. February 24, 1944. No. 46. C.4; Celebrating the 27th Anniversary of the Red Army in the USA // Pravda. February 24, 1945. No. 47. C.4; Meeting in the USA in honor of International Women's Day // International Review // Pravda. July 8, 1945. No. 162. C.4
33. See Technique-youth. No. 9.1943. Pp.15-25
34. Strike in the USA // Pravda. 28 July 1945. №232. C.4; Strike movement in the USA // Pravda. November 1, 1945. No. 261. C.4; Strike movement in the USA // Pravda. November 5, 1945. №265. C.4; Strike movement in the USA // Stalin Banner. October 17, 1945. No. 206. C.2; The Struggle of American Trade Unions to Raise Wages // Stalin Banner. October 17, 1945. No.206. C.2
35. A. Georgiev. About the book by Walter Lippman "US Military Aims" // Pravda. March 16, 1945. No. 64. C.4
36. About the book by Walter Lippman "US Military Aims" // Pravda. April 20, 1945. No. 94. C.4
37. International Review // Pravda. July 8, 1945. No. 162. C.4; Contest for slanderers // Pravda. July 16, 1945. No. 169. C.4; International Review // Pravda. September 30, 1945. No. 234. C.4
38. International Review // Pravda. September 9, 1945. No. 216. C.4
39. Mrs. Claire Luce's hysterics // Truth. July 14, 1945. No. 167. C.4; Welles' article on policy towards Germany // Pravda. July 25, 1945. No. 178. C.4
40. Press of Latin America on the combat successes of the Soviet troops // Pravda. January 20, 1943. No. 20. C.4; Australian newspaper about the successes of the Soviet troops // Pravda. January 21, 1943. No. 21. C.4; Iranian press about the victory of the Red Army at Stalingrad // Pravda. February 8, 1943. No. 39. C.4; Syrian press on the offensive of the Red Army // Pravda. February 16, 1943. No. 47. C.4; Responses abroad to Comrade Stalin's May Day order // Pravda. May 5, 1943. No. 115. C.4; Canadian press about the decision of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR // Pravda. February 4, 1944. No. 30. C.4; Comments of the newspaper "France" to the decisions of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR // Pravda. February 5, 1944. No. 31. C.4; Swiss newspaper about the victories of the Red Army // Pravda. February 23, 1944. No. 46. C.4; "Times" on the successes of the Red Army // Pravda. February 28, 1944. No. 51. C.4; Mexican press on the successes of the Red Army // Pravda. March 11, 1944. No. 61. C.4; Responses abroad to the decisions of the Crimean conference of the leaders of the three allied powers // Pravda. February 15, 1945. No. 39. C.3
41. English military observer about the great successes of the Red Army // Izvestia. July 26, 1941. No. 175. C.4; Foreign press celebrates the valor and military art of the Red Army // Izvestia. July 27, 1941. No. 176. C.4; Foreign press about the military operations of the Red Army // Pravda. January 7, 1942. No. 7. C.4; Foreign press about the military operations of the Red Army // Pravda. January 9, 1942. No. 9. C.4; Successful offensive of the Red Army in the assessment of the foreign press // Pravda. January 19, 1942. No. 19. C.4; Yugoslav newspaper about the 27th anniversary of the Red Army // Stalin Banner. February 24, 1945. No. 38. C.2
42. Foreign press about new victories of the Red Army // Pravda. January 5, 1942. No. 5. C.4
43. Foreign press about our successes at the front // Pravda. January 16, 1942. No. 16. C.4
44. News. July 6, 1941. No. 158. C.1; News. August 26, 1941. No. 201. C.1
45. Canadian press about the successes of the Red Army // Pravda. January 6, 1942. No. 6. C.4
46. Lomovtsev A. I. Mass media and their impact on the mass consciousness during the Second World War: Diss … cand. ist. sciences. Penza. 2002, p. 130
47. True. February 7, 1943. No. 38. C.4; Responses abroad to the report of the Chairman of the State Defense Committee, Comrade IV Stalin // Pravda. November 8, 1944. No. 269. C.4
48. Articles about Comrade Stalin in a Mexican magazine // Pravda. March 25, 1944. No. 73. C.4
49. True. January 14, 1945. No. 115. C.3
50. Responses of the foreign press and radio to the May Day order of the Supreme Commander-in-Chief Marshal of the Soviet Union, Comrade IV Stalin // Pravda. May 5, 1944. No. 108. C.4
51. Vergasov F. Russia and the West. Formation of foreign policy stereotypes in the minds of Russian society in the first half of the twentieth century // Chapter IV. The Image of the West in the Context of World Wars www.pseudology.org
52. Blank A., Khavkin B. Second life of Field Marshal Paulus. Moscow, 1990, page 173
53. Clark A. "Barbarossa". The Russian-German Conflict 1941-1945. London, 1965. P. 225.
54. Khazanov D. B. Stalingrad: August 23, 1942 // Military History Journal. 2009.. No. 12. P.14.
55. Stalin's Banner. August 25, 1942. No.200. C.2.
56. Ibid. August 26, 1942. No. 201. C.2.
