Grass does not grow at spaceports. No, not because of the fierce engine flame that journalists love to write about. Too much poison is spilled on the ground when refueling carriers and during emergency discharges of fuel, when rockets explode on the launch pad and small, inevitable leaks in worn-out pipelines.
/ thoughts of the pilot Pyotr Khrumov-Nick Rimer in S. Lukyanenko's novel "Star Shadow"
When discussing the article "The Saga of Rocket Fuels", a rather painful issue was raised about the safety of liquid rocket fuels, as well as their combustion products, and a little about filling the launch vehicle. I am definitely not an expert in this area, but “for the environment” it is a shame.
Instead of a preface, I suggest that you familiarize yourself with the publication “ Access fee into outer space”.
Conventions (not all are used in this article, but they will come in handy in life. Greek letters are difficult to write in HTML - so the screenshot) /
Glossary (not all are used in this article).
The environmental safety of rocket launches, testing and development of propulsion systems (DP) of aircraft (AC) is mainly determined by the components of the rocket fuel (MCT) used. Many MCTs are distinguished by high chemical activity, toxicity, explosion and fire hazard.
Taking into account toxicity, CRT are divided into four hazard classes (in descending order of hazard):
- first class: flammable hydrazine series (hydrazine, UDMH and Luminal-A product);
- the second class: some hydrocarbon fuels (modifications of kerosene and synthetic fuels) and the oxidizing agent hydrogen peroxide;
- the third class: oxidants nitrogen tetroxide (AT) and AK-27I (mixture of HNO3 - 69.8%, N2O4 - 28%, J - 0.12 … 0.16%);
- fourth class: hydrocarbon fuel RG-1 (kerosene), ethyl alcohol and aviation gasoline.
Liquid hydrogen, LNG (methane СН4) and liquid oxygen are not toxic, but when operating systems with the indicated CRT, it is necessary to take into account their fire and explosion hazard (especially hydrogen in mixtures with oxygen and air).
Sanitary and hygienic standards of KRT are given in the table:
Most flammable fuels are explosive and according to GOST 12.1.011 they are classified as IIA explosion hazard category.
Products of complete and partial oxidation of MCT in engine elements and their combustion products, as a rule, contain harmful compounds: carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides (NOx), etc.
In engines and power plants of missiles, most of the heat supplied to the working fluid (60 … 70%) is emitted into the environment with a jet stream of a taxiway or a coolant (in cases of operation of a taxiway, water is used on test benches). The release of heated exhaust gases into the atmosphere can affect the local microclimate.
A film about the RD-170, its production and testing.
A recent report from NPO Energomash: two huge chimneys of test stands are visible, accompanying buildings and the vicinity of Khimki:
On the other side of the roof: you can see spherical tanks for oxygen, cylindrical tanks for nitrogen, kerosene tanks are slightly to the right, they were not included in the frame. In Soviet times, engines for the Proton were tested at these stands.
Very close to Moscow.
Currently, many "civilian" rocket engines use hydrocarbon fuels. Their products of complete combustion (H2O water vapor and CO2 carbon dioxide) are conventionally not considered chemical environmental pollutants.
All other components are either smoke-generating or toxic substances that have a harmful effect on humans and the environment.
It:
sulfur compounds (S02, S03, etc.); products of incomplete combustion of hydrocarbon fuel - soot (C), carbon monoxide (CO), various hydrocarbons, including oxygen-containing ones (aldehydes, ketones, etc.), conventionally designated as CmHn, CmHnOp or simply CH; nitrogen oxides with the general designation NOx; solid (ash) particles formed from mineral impurities in the fuel; compounds of lead, barium and other elements that make up fuel additives.
Compared with heat engines of other types, the toxicity of rocket engines has its own characteristics, due to the specific conditions of their operation, the fuels used and the level of their mass consumption, higher temperatures in the reaction zone, the effects of afterburning of exhaust gases in the atmosphere, and the specifics of engine designs.
The spent stages of launch vehicles (LV), falling to the ground, are destroyed and the guaranteed reserves of stable fuel components remaining in the tanks contaminate and poison the area of land or water body adjacent to the crash site.
In order to increase the energy characteristics of the liquid-propellant rocket engine, the fuel components are fed into the combustion chamber at a ratio corresponding to the oxidizer excess coefficient αdv <1.
In addition, methods of thermal protection of combustion chambers include methods of creating a layer of combustion products with a reduced temperature level near the fire wall by supplying excess fuel. Many modern designs of combustion chambers have curtain belts through which additional fuel is supplied to the wall layer. This first creates a liquid film uniformly along the perimeter of the chamber, and then a gas layer of the evaporated fuel. The wall layer of combustion products that is significantly enriched in fuel is retained up to the nozzle outlet.
The afterburning of the exhaust flame combustion products occurs during turbulent mixing with air. In some cases, the temperature level developed in this case can be high enough for the intensive formation of nitrogen oxides NOx from nitrogen and oxygen in the air. Calculations show that nitrogen-free fuels O2zh + H2zh and O2zh + kerosene, upon afterburning, respectively, are 1, 7 and 1, 4 times more nitrogen oxide NO than fuel nitrogen tetroxide + UDMH.
The formation of nitric oxide during afterburning occurs especially intensively at low altitudes.
When analyzing the formation of nitrogen oxide in the exhaust flare, it is also necessary to take into account the presence of liquid nitrogen in technical liquid oxygen up to 0.5 … 0.8% by weight of liquid nitrogen.
“The law of transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones” (Hegel) plays a cruel joke on us here too, namely, the second mass flow rate of TC: here and now.
Example: the consumption of propellants at the moment of launch of the Proton LV is 3800 kg / s, the Space Shuttle - more than 10000 kg / s and the Saturn-5 LV - 13000 kg / s. Such costs cause the accumulation of a large amount of combustion products in the launch area, pollution of clouds, acid rain and changes in weather conditions on an area of 100-200 km2.
NASA has studied the environmental impact of Space Shuttle launches for a long time, especially since the Kennedy Space Center is located in a nature reserve and almost on the beach.
During the launch, the three propulsion engines of the orbital spacecraft burn liquid hydrogen, and the solid-fuel boosters burn ammonium perchlorate with aluminum. According to NASA estimates, the surface cloud in the area of the launch pad during launch contains about 65 tons of water, 72 tons of carbon dioxide, 38 tons of aluminum oxide, 35 tons of hydrogen chloride, 4 tons of other chlorine derivatives, 240 kg of carbon monoxide and 2.3 tons of nitrogen. … Tons of brothers! Tens of tons.
Here, of course, the fact that the "space shuttle" has not only ecological liquid-propellant rocket engines, but also the world's most powerful "partially poisonous" solid propellants, plays a significant role. In general, that big cocktail turns out at the exit.
The hydrogen chloride in the water converts to hydrochloric acid and causes major environmental disturbances around the launch site. There are large swimming pools with cooling water near the start complex, where fish are found. The increased acidity on the surface after the start leads to the death of fry. Larger juveniles, living deeper, survive. Oddly enough, no diseases were found in birds eating dead fish. Probably not yet. Moreover, the birds have adapted to fly in for easy prey after each start. Some plant species die after the start, but the crops of useful plants survive. In unfavorable winds, the acid travels outside the three-mile zone around the launch site and destroys the paint coat on the cars. Therefore, NASA issues special covers to owners whose vehicles are in a hazardous area on launch day. Aluminum oxide is inert and, although it can cause lung disease, it is believed that its concentration at the start is not dangerous.
Okay, this "Space Shuttle" - it at least combines H2O (H2 + O2) with the oxidation products NH4ClO4 and Al … And figs with them, with these Americans who are overweight and eat GMOs ….
And here is an example for the 5V21A SAM S-200V:
1. Sustaining rocket engine 5D12: AT + NDMG
2. Boosters solid propellant rocket engine 5S25 (5S28) four pieces of charge mixed TT 5V28 type RAM-10k
→ Video clip about C 200 launches;
→ Combat work of the technical division of the S200 air defense missile system.
An invigorating breathing mixture in the area of combat and training launches. It was after the fighting that "pleasant flexibility in the body was formed and the tonsils in the nose itched."
Let's get back to liquid-propellant rocket engines, and on the specifics of solid propellants, their ecology and components for them, in another article (voyaka uh - I remember the order).
The performance of the propulsion system can be assessed only based on test results. So, to confirm the lower limit of the probability of no-failure operation (FBR) Рн> 0, 99 with a confidence probability of 0.95, it is necessary to carry out n = 300 fail-safe tests, and for Рн> 0, 999 - n = 1000 fail-safe tests.
If we consider the liquid-propellant engine, then the mining process is carried out in the following sequence:
- testing of elements, units (seal assemblies and pump supports, pump, gas generator, combustion chamber, valve, etc.);
- testing of systems (TNA, TNA with GG, GG with CS, etc.);
- tests of the engine simulator;
- engine tests;
- tests of the engine as part of the remote control;
- aircraft flight tests.
In the practice of creating engines, 2 methods of bench debugging are known: sequential (conservative) and parallel (accelerated).
A test stand is a technical device for setting the test object in a given position, creating influences, reading information and controlling the test process and the test object.
Test stands for various purposes usually consist of two parts connected by communications:
Diagrams and photos will give understanding more than my verbal constructions:
Reference:
Testers and those who worked with UDMH / heptyl / were granted under the USSR: 6-hour working day, vacation 36 working days, length of service, retirement at 55 years, provided they work in harmful conditions for 12, 5 years, free meals, preferential vouchers to sanatoriums and d / o. They were assigned for medical care to the 3rd GU of the Ministry of Health, like the enterprises of Sredmash, with obligatory regular medical examination. The mortality rate in the departments was much higher than the average for the enterprises of the industry, mainly for oncological diseases, although they were not classified as occupational.
At present, for the withdrawal of heavy loads (orbital stations with a mass of up to 20 tons), the Proton launch vehicle is used in the Russian Federation using highly toxic fuel components NDMG and AT. To reduce the harmful effect of the launch vehicle on the environment, the stages and engines of the rocket (“Proton-M”) were modernized in order to significantly reduce the component residues in the tanks and power lines of the propulsion system:
-new BTsVK
-system for the simultaneous emptying of the rocket tanks (SOB)
For the withdrawal of payloads in Russia, relatively cheap conversion rocket systems "Dnepr", "Strela", "Rokot", "Cyclone" and "Kosmos-3M" are used (or were used), operating on toxic fuels.
To launch manned spacecraft with cosmonauts, only (both in our country and in the world, except for China) Soyuz carrier rockets fueled by oxygen-kerosene fuel are used. The most ecological TCs are H2 + O2, followed by kerosene + O2, or HCG + O2. "Stinks" are the most toxic and complete the ecological list (I do not consider fluorine and other exotic things).
Hydrogen and LRE test benches for such fuel have their own "gadgets". At the initial stage of work with hydrogen, due to its significant explosion and fire hazard, there was no consensus in the United States about the advisability of afterburning all types of hydrogen emissions. Thus, the Pratt-Whitney company (USA) was of the opinion that combustion of the entire amount of emitted hydrogen guarantees complete safety of tests, therefore, a propane gas flame is maintained above all the ventilation pipes of the hydrogen discharge of the test benches.
The Douglas-Ercraft firm (USA) considered it sufficient to release gaseous hydrogen in small quantities through a vertical pipe located at a considerable distance from the test sites, without afterburning it.
In the Russian test benches, in the process of preparing and carrying out tests, hydrogen emissions are burned out with a flow rate of more than 0.5 kg / s. At lower costs, hydrogen is not burned out, but is removed from the technological systems of the test bench and discharged into the atmosphere through drainage outlets with nitrogen blowing.
With the toxic components of the RT ("smelly"), the situation is much worse. As when testing liquid-propellant rocket engines:
The same is true for launches (both emergency and partially successful):
The issue of damage to the environment in possible accidents at the launch site and in the fall of separating missile parts is very important, since these accidents are practically unpredictable.
"Let's go back to our rams." Let the Chinese figure it out themselves, especially since there are so many of them.
In the western part of the Altai-Sayan region, there are six areas (fields) of the fall of the second stages of the LV launched from the Baikonur cosmodrome. Four of them, included in the Yu-30 zone (No. 306, 307, 309, 310), are located in the extreme western part of the region, on the border of the Altai Territory and the East Kazakhstan region. Falling areas No. 326, 327 included in the Yu-32 zone are located in the eastern part of the republic, in the immediate vicinity of the lake. Teletskoe.
In the case of using rockets with environmentally friendly propellants, measures to eliminate the consequences in places where the separating parts fall are reduced to mechanical methods of collecting the remains of metal structures.
Special measures should be taken to eliminate the consequences of the fall of steps containing tons of undeveloped UDMH, which penetrates the soil and, dissolving well in water, can spread over long distances. Nitrogen tetroxide quickly dissipates in the atmosphere and is not a determining factor in contamination of the area. According to the estimates, it takes at least 40 years to fully reclaim the land used as the fall zone of the UDMH steps within 10 years. At the same time, work should be carried out to excavate and transport a significant amount of soil from the fall sites. Investigations in the places of the fall of the first stages of the "Proton" launch vehicle showed that the zone of soil contamination with the fall of one stage occupies an area of ~ 50 thousand m2 with a surface concentration in the center of 320-1150 mg / kg, which is thousands of times higher than the maximum permissible concentration.
Currently, there are no effective ways to neutralize contaminated areas with UDMH combustible
The World Health Organization has included UDMH on the list of highly hazardous chemical compounds. Reference: Heptyl is 6 times more toxic than hydrocyanic acid! And where did you see 100 tons of hydrocyanic acid AT ONCE?
Combustion products of heptyl and amyl (oxidation) when testing rocket engines or launching carrier rockets.
Everything on the wiki is simple and harmless:
On the "exhaust": water, nitrogen and carbon dioxide.
And in life, everything is more complicated: Km and alpha, respectively, the mass ratio of oxidizer / fuel 1, 6: 1 or 2, 6: 1 = a completely wild excess of oxidizer (example: N2O4: UDMH = 2.6: 1 (260 g and 100 g.- as an example):
When this bunch meets another mixture - our air + organic matter (pollen) + dust + sulfur oxides + methane + propane + and so on, the results of oxidation / combustion look like this:
Nitrosodimethylamine (chemical name: N-methyl-N-nitrosomethanamine). Formed by oxidation of heptyl by amyl. Let's well dissolve in water. It enters into oxidation and reduction reactions, with the formation of heptyl, dimethylhydrazine, dimethylamine, ammonia, formaldehyde and other substances. It is a highly toxic substance of the 1st hazard class. A carcinogen with cumulative properties. MPC: in the air of the working area - 0.01 mg / m3, that is, 10 times more dangerous than heptyl, in the atmospheric air of settlements - 0.001 mg / m3 (daily average), in the water of reservoirs - 0.01 mg / l.
Tetramethyltetrazene (4, 4, 4, 4-tetramethyl-2-tetrazene) is the decomposition product of heptyl. Soluble in water to a limited extent. Stable in abiotic environment, very stable in water. Decomposes to form dimethylamine and a number of unidentified substances. In terms of toxicity, it has a 3rd hazard class. MPC: in the atmospheric air of settlements - 0, 005 mg / m3, in the water of reservoirs - 0, 1 mg / l.
Nitrogen dioxide NO2 is a strong oxidizing agent, organic compounds ignite when mixed with it. Under normal conditions, nitrogen dioxide exists in equilibrium with amyl (nitrogen tetraoxide). It has an irritating effect on the pharynx, there may be shortness of breath, edema of the lungs, mucous membranes of the respiratory tract, degeneration and necrosis of tissues in the liver, kidneys, and human brain. MPC: in the air of the working area - 2 mg / m3, in the air of populated areas - 0, 085 mg / m3 (maximum one-time) and 0, 04 mg / m3 (average daily), hazard class – 2.
Carbon monoxide (carbon monoxide)-product of incomplete combustion of organic (carbon-containing) fuels. Carbon monoxide can be in the air for a long time (up to 2 months) without change. Carbon monoxide is a poison. Binds hemoglobin of blood to carboxyhemoglobin, disrupting the ability to carry oxygen to human organs and tissues. MPC: in the atmospheric air of populated areas - 5.0 mg / m3 (maximum one-time) and 3.0 mg / m3 (daily average). In the presence of both carbon monoxide and nitrogen compounds in the air, the toxic effect of carbon monoxide on people increases.
Hydrocyanic acid (hydrogen cyanide)is a strong poison. Hydrocyanic acid is extremely toxic. It is absorbed by intact skin, has a general toxic effect: headache, nausea, vomiting, respiratory distress, asphyxia, convulsions, death may occur. In acute poisoning, hydrocyanic acid causes rapid suffocation, increased pressure, oxygen starvation of tissues. At low concentrations, there is a scratching sensation in the throat, a burning bitter taste in the mouth, salivation, lesions of the conjunctiva of the eyes, muscle weakness, staggering, difficulty speaking, dizziness, acute headache, nausea, vomiting, urge to defecate, congestion to the head, increased heartbeat and other symptoms.
Formaldehyde (formic aldehyde)-toxin. Formaldehyde has a pungent odor, it strongly irritates the mucous membranes of the eyes and nasopharynx, even at low concentrations. It has a general toxic effect (damage to the central nervous system, organs of vision, liver, kidneys), has an irritating, allergenic, carcinogenic, mutagenic effect. MPC in atmospheric air: daily average - 0.012 mg / m3, maximum one-time - 0.035 mg / m3.
Intense rocket and space activities on the territory of Russia in recent years have given rise to a huge number of problems: environmental pollution by separating parts of launch vehicles, toxic components of rocket fuel (heptyl and its derivatives,nitrogen tetroxide, etc.) Someone ("partners") quietly sniffing and giggling over the economist journalist and mythical trampolines, calmly and not straining too hard, replaced all the first (and second) stages (Delta-IV, Arian-IV, Atlas- V) on high-boiling components to safe ones, and someone strenuously carried out launches of the Proton, Rokot, Space, etc. LVs. ruining yourself and nature. At the same time, for the works of the righteous, they paid with neatly cut paper from the printing house of the US Federal Reserve System, and the papers remained "there."
The entire history of our country's relationship with heptyl is a chemical war, only a chemical war, not only undeclared, but simply unidentified by us.
Briefly about the military use of heptyl:
Anti-missile stages of missile defense systems, submarine ballistic missiles (SLBMs), space missiles, of course air defense missiles, as well as operational-tactical missiles (medium-range).
The Army and the Navy left a "heptyl" trail in Vladivostok and the Far East, Severodvinsk, Kirov region and a number of environs, Plesetsk, Kapustin Yar, Baikonur, Perm, Bashkiria, etc. We must not forget that the missiles were transported, repaired, re-equipped, etc., all on land, near the industrial facilities where this heptyl was produced. About accidents with these highly toxic components and about informing civil authorities, civil defense (Ministry of Emergencies) and the population - who knows, he will tell you more.
It should be remembered that the places of production and testing of engines are not in the desert: Voronezh, Moscow (Tushino), the Nefteorgsintez plant in Salavat (Bashkiria), etc.
Several dozen R-36M, UTTH / R-36M2 ICBMs are on alert in the Russian Federation.
And many more UR-100N UTTH with heptyl filling.
The results of the activities of the Air Defense Forces operating with S-75, S-100, S-200 missiles are quite difficult to analyze.
Once every few years, heptyl was poured and will be poured out of rockets, transported in refrigeration units across the country for processing, brought back, refilled, and so on. Railway and car accidents cannot be avoided (this has happened). The army will work with heptyl, and everyone will suffer - not only the missile men themselves.
Another problem is our low average annual temperatures. It's easier for Americans.
According to experts from the World Health Organization, the period of neutralization of heptyl, which is a toxic substance of hazard class I, in our latitudes is: in the soil - more than 20 years, in water bodies - 2-3 years, in vegetation - 15-20 years.
And if the country's defense is our sacred, and in the 50s and 90s we simply had to put up with it (either heptyl, or the embodiment of one of the many programs of the US attack on the USSR), then today is there any sense and logic using rockets on NDMG and AT to launch foreign spacecraft, receive money for the service and at the same time poison yourself and your friends? Again "Swan, Cancer and Pike"?
One side: no costs for the disposal of combat launch vehicles (ICBMs, SLBMs, missiles, OTR) and even profit and cost savings for launching the launch vehicle into orbit;
On the other side: harmful impact on the environment, population in the zone of start-up and fall of spent stages of conversion LV;
And on the third side: The Russian Federation cannot do without RN based on high-boiling components.
ZhCI R-36M2 / RS-20V Voivode (SS-18 mod.5-6 SATAN) for some political aspects (PO Yuzhny Machine-Building Plant (Dnepropetrovsk), and simply for temporary degradation cannot be extended.
The prospective heavy intercontinental ballistic missile RS-28 / OKR Sarmat, the 15A28 - SS-X-30 missile (project) will be based on high-boiling toxic components.
We lag behind somewhat in solid propellants and especially in SLBMs:
Chronicle of the "Bulava" torment until 2010.
Therefore, for SSBNs the best in the world (in terms of energy perfection, and generally a masterpiece) SLBM R-29RMU2.1 / OKR Liner will be used: AT + NDMG.
Yes, one can argue that ampulization has been used in the Strategic Missile Forces and the Navy for a long time and many problems have been resolved: storage, operation, safety of personnel and combat crew.
But using conversion ICBMs for commercial launches is "the same rake again."
Old (the guaranteed shelf life has expired) ICBMs, SLBMs, TR and OTR can not be stored forever, either. Where is this consensus and how to catch it - I don't know exactly, but also to M. S. I do not recommend contacting Gorbachev.
Briefly: refueling systems for launch vehicles with the use of toxic components
At the SC for the "Proton" launch vehicle, ensuring the safety of work during the preparation and conduct of a rocket launch and maintenance personnel during operations with sources of increased danger was achieved by using remote control and maximum automation of the processes of preparation and launch of the launch vehicle, as well as operations carried out on the rocket. and technological equipment of the SC in case of cancellation of the launch of the missile and its evacuation from the SC. The design feature of the starting and refueling units and systems of the complex, providing preparation for launch and launching, is that refueling, drainage, electrical and pneumatic communications are docked remotely, and all communications are undocked automatically. There are no cable and cable-refueling masts at the launch site; their role is played by the docking mechanisms of the launching device.
The launch complexes of the "Cosmos-1" and "Cosmos-3M" LV were created on the basis of the R-12 and R-14 ballistic missile complexes without significant modifications in its connections with ground equipment. This led to the presence of many manual operations at the launch complex, including the launch vehicle filled with propellant components. Subsequently, many operations were automated and the level of automation of work on the Cosmos-3M launch vehicle is already over 70%.
However, some operations, including reconnecting refueling lines to drain fuel in case of a cancellation of the start, are performed manually. The main SC systems are the systems for refueling with propellants, compressed gases and a remote control system for refueling. In addition, the SC contains units that destroy the consequences of working with toxic fuel components (drained MCT vapors, aqueous solutions formed during various kinds of washes, equipment flushing).
The main equipment of refueling systems - tanks, pumps, pneumatic hydraulic systems - are placed in reinforced concrete structures buried in the ground. SRT storages, a facility for compressed gases, a remote control system for refueling are located at considerable distances from each other and starting devices in order to ensure their safety in case of emergency.
All the main and many auxiliary operations are automated at the launch complex of the "Cyclone" LV.
The level of automation for the cycle of prelaunch preparation and launch of the LV is 100%.
Detoxification of heptyl:
The essence of the method for reducing the toxicity of UDMH is to supply a 20% formalin solution to the missile fuel tanks:
(CH3) 2NNH2 + CH2O = (CH3) 2NN = CH2 + H2O + Q
This operation in an excess of formalin leads to complete (100%) destruction of UDMH by converting it into formaldehyde dimethylhydrazone in one processing cycle in 1-5 seconds. This excludes the formation of dimethylnitrosoamine (CH3) 2NN = O.
The next phase of the process is the destruction of dimethylhydrazone formaldehyde (DMHF) by adding acetic acid to the tanks, which causes dimerization of DMHF into glyoxal bis-dimethylhydrazone and polymer mass. The reaction time is about 1 minute:
(CH3) 2NN = CH2 + H + → (CH3) 2NN = CHHC = NN (CH3) 2 + polymers + Q
The resulting mass is moderately toxic, readily soluble in water.
It's time to round off, I can't resist in the afterword and again quote S. Lukyanenko:
Let's remember:
The tragedy of October 24, 1960 at the 41st site of Baikonur:
Burning torches of people burst out of the flame. They run … Fall … Crawl on all fours … Freeze in steaming hillocks.
An emergency rescue group is working. Not all rescuers had enough protective equipment. In the deadly poisonous environment of the fire, some worked even without gas masks, in ordinary gray overcoats.
ETERNAL MEMORY FOR GUYS. THERE WERE THE SAME PEOPLE …
We will not punish anyone, all the guilty have already been punished
/ Chairman of the government commission L. I. Brezhnev
Primary sources:
Data, photos and videos used:
