In the first half of the 70s, the gradual elimination of the positions of the previously deployed air defense systems began in the United States. First of all, this was due to the fact that ICBMs became the main means of delivery of Soviet nuclear weapons, which could not serve as protection against missiles. Experiments on using the upgraded Nike-Hercules MIM-14 air defense system as a missile defense system showed that the missile defense system of this complex, despite the reach in height of 30 km and the use of a nuclear warhead, does not provide effective interception of ICBM warheads.
By 1974, all Nike-Hercules air defense systems, with the exception of batteries in Florida and Alaska, were removed from combat duty in the United States. Thus, the history of the centralized American air defense system, based on the air defense system, ended.
Subsequently, from the early 70s to the present day, the main tasks of the air defense of North America were solved with the help of interceptor fighters (US Air Defense).
But this did not mean that work was not carried out in the United States to create promising air defense systems. Long-range and high-altitude "Nike-Hercules" had significant restrictions on mobility, in addition, it could not fight low-altitude targets, the minimum height of the defeat of the MIM-14 Nike-Hercules missiles was 1.5 km.
In the early 60s, a very successful medium-range air defense system MIM-23 HAWK (SAM MIM-23 HAWK. Half a century in service) entered service with the air defense units of the ground forces and the US Marine Corps. Despite the fact that on American territory this complex was practically not involved in combat duty, it became widespread in the armies of the US allies.
The positive qualities of the Hawk air defense system are: good mobility, relative simplicity and low cost (compared to Nike-Hercules). The complex was quite effective against low-altitude targets. Semi-active radar guidance was used to aim the missile defense system at the target, which was a great achievement for that time.
Guidance station SAM MIM-23 HAWK
Soon after the adoption of the first option, the question arose about increasing the capabilities and reliability of the air defense system. The first anti-aircraft missile systems of the new Improved HAWK modification entered the army in 1972, some of the complexes were mounted on self-propelled chassis.
Battery SAM Improved HAWK on the march
The modernized Hawk air defense missile system is based on the MIM-23B modification rocket. She received updated electronic equipment and a new solid fuel engine. The design of the rocket and, as a result, the dimensions remained the same, but the launch weight increased. Having grown heavy up to 625 kilograms, the modernized rocket expanded its capabilities. Now the interception range was in the range from 1 to 40 kilometers, the height - from 30 meters to 18 km. The new solid-propellant engine provided the MIM-23B rocket with a maximum speed of up to 900 m / s.
Anti-aircraft missile systems MIM-23 HAWK were supplied to 25 countries in Europe, the Middle East, Asia and Africa. In total, several hundred air defense systems and about 40 thousand missiles of several modifications were manufactured. SAM of this type was actively used during the hostilities in the Middle East and North Africa.
The MIM-23 HAWK complex has shown an example of rare longevity. So, the US Marine Corps was the last in the American armed forces to finally stop using all systems of the MIM-23 family only at the beginning of the 2000s (its approximate analogue, the low-altitude C-125, was operated in the Russian air defense until the mid-90s). And in a number of countries, having undergone several modernizations, it is still on alert, having been in operation for half a century. Despite its age, the MIM-23 air defense system is still one of the most common anti-aircraft systems in its class.
In the UK, in the early 60s, the Bloodhound air defense system was adopted, which, in terms of its maximum range and height of destruction, corresponded to the American Hawk, but was, in contrast to it, more cumbersome and could not be effectively used against intensively maneuvering targets. Even at the design stage of the missile defense system, it was understood that the main targets for it would be Soviet long-range bombers.
SAM Bloodhound
Two ramjet engines (ramjet) were used as the propulsion system for the Bloodhound rocket. The engines were installed above and below the rocket fuselage, which significantly increased drag. Since ramjet engines could only work effectively at speeds of 1M, four solid-propellant boosters were used to launch the missile, located in pairs on the side surfaces of the rocket. The accelerators accelerated the rocket to the speed at which the ramjet engines began to work, after which they were dropped. The missile was controlled using a semi-active radar guidance system.
Initially, all Bloodhound air defense systems were deployed in the vicinity of British air bases. But after the appearance in 1965 of the radically improved Bloodhound Mk II missile with a range of up to 85 km, they were used to provide air defense for the British Rhine Army in Germany. Combat service "Bloodhounds" at home continued until 1990. In addition to Great Britain, they were on alert in Singapore, Australia and Sweden. The longest "Bloodhounds" remained in the Swedish service - the last missiles were decommissioned in 1999, almost 40 years after being put into service.
The first anti-aircraft missile systems S-25 and S-75, developed in the USSR, successfully solved the main task posed during their creation - to ensure the defeat of high-speed high-altitude targets inaccessible to cannon anti-aircraft artillery and difficult to intercept by fighter aircraft. At the same time, such a high efficiency of the use of new weapons was achieved under test conditions that the customers had a well-founded desire to ensure the possibility of their use in the entire range of speeds and altitudes at which the aviation of a potential enemy could operate. Meanwhile, the minimum height of the affected areas of the S-25 and S-75 complexes was 1-3 km, which corresponded to the tactical and technical requirements formed in the early fifties. The results of the analysis of the possible course of the upcoming military operations indicated that as the defense was saturated with these anti-aircraft missile systems, strike aircraft could switch to operations at low altitudes (which subsequently happened).
In order to speed up the work in the formation of the technical appearance of the new Soviet low-altitude air defense system, the experience of developing previously created systems was widely used. To determine the position of the target aircraft and the radio-controlled missile, a difference method with linear scanning of the airspace was used, similar to that implemented in the C-25 and C-75 complexes.
The adoption of the new Soviet complex, designated S-125 (Low-altitude SAM S-125), practically coincided in time with the American MIM-23 HAWK. But, unlike the air defense systems previously created in the USSR, the rocket for the new complex was originally designed with a solid-propellant engine. This made it possible to significantly facilitate and simplify the operation and maintenance of missiles. In addition, compared to the S-75, the mobility of the complex was increased and the number of missiles on the launcher was brought to two.
PU SAM S-125
All SAM equipment is located in towed car trailers and semitrailers, which ensured the deployment of the division on a site measuring 200x200 m.
Soon after the adoption of the S-125 into service, work began on modernization, an improved version of the air defense system was named the C-125 "Neva-M" air defense system. The new missile defense system ensured the defeat of targets operating at flight speeds of up to 560 m / s (up to 2000 km / h) at a distance of up to 17 km in the altitude range of 200-14000 m. - up to 13.6 km. Low-altitude (100-200 m) targets and transonic aircraft were destroyed at ranges of up to 10 km and 22 km, respectively. Thanks to the new launcher for four missiles, the ready-to-use ammunition load of the firing division has doubled.
SAM S-125M1 (S-125M1A) "Neva-M1" was created by further modernization of the S-125M air defense system, carried out in the early 1970s. He had an increased noise immunity of the missile defense control channels and target sighting, as well as the possibility of tracking and firing it in conditions of visual visibility due to the television-optical sighting equipment. The introduction of a new missile and the refinement of the equipment of the SNR-125 missile guidance station made it possible to increase the affected area to 25 km with an altitude reach of 18 km. The minimum target hitting height was 25 m. At the same time, a modification of the missile with a special warhead was developed to hit group targets.
Various modifications of the S-125 air defense system were actively exported (more than 400 complexes were delivered to foreign customers) where they were successfully used in the course of numerous armed conflicts. According to many domestic and foreign experts, this low-altitude air defense system is one of the best examples of air defense systems in terms of its reliability. For several decades of their operation until now, a significant part of them have not exhausted their resource and can be in service until the 20-30s. XXI century. Based on the experience of combat use and practical firing, the S-125 has high operational reliability and maintainability.
Using modern technologies, it is possible to significantly increase its combat capabilities at relatively low costs in comparison with the purchase of new air defense systems with comparable characteristics. Therefore, taking into account the great interest from potential customers, a number of domestic and foreign options for the modernization of the S-125 air defense system have been proposed in recent years.
The experience gained in the operation of the first anti-aircraft missile systems by the end of the 50s showed that they were of little use to combat low-flying targets. In this regard, a number of countries have begun to develop compact low-altitude air defense systems designed to cover both stationary and mobile objects. The requirements for them in different armies were largely similar, but, first of all, it was believed that the air defense system should be extremely automated and compact, placed on no more than two high-mobility vehicles (otherwise, their deployment time would be unacceptably long) …
In the second half of the 60s and early 70s in the USSR, there was an "explosive" growth in the types of air defense systems adopted for service and the number of complexes supplied to the troops. First of all, this applies to the newly created mobile anti-aircraft air defense systems of the ground forces. The Soviet military leadership did not want a repeat of 1941, when a significant part of the fighters were destroyed by a surprise attack on forward airfields. As a result, the troops on the march and in the areas of concentration were vulnerable to enemy bombers. To prevent such a situation, the development of mobile air defense systems of the front, army, division and regimental level was launched.
With sufficiently high combat characteristics, the S-75 family air defense systems were not very suitable for providing air defense for tank and motorized rifle units. It became necessary to create a military air defense system on a tracked chassis, which has mobility no worse than the maneuverable capabilities of the combined arms (tank) formations and units covered by it. It was also decided to abandon a rocket with a liquid propellant engine using aggressive and toxic components.
For a new mobile medium-range air defense system, after working out several options, a rocket weighing about 2.5 tons was created, with a ramjet engine running on liquid fuel, with a flight speed of up to 1000 m / s. It was filled with 270 kg of kerosene. The launch was carried out by four discharged starting solid-propellant boosters of the first stage. The missile has a proximity fuse, a radio control receiver and an airborne transponder.
Launch of self-propelled air defense missile system "Krug"
In parallel with the creation of an anti-aircraft guided missile, a launcher and radar stations for various purposes were developed. The missile was aimed at the target with the help of radio commands by the method of half-straightening the missiles received from the guidance station.
SNR SAM "Circle"
In 1965, the complex entered service and was subsequently modernized several times. SAM "Krug" (Self-propelled SAM "Krug") ensured the destruction of enemy aircraft flying at a speed of less than 700 m / s at a distance of 11 to 45 kilometers and at an altitude of 3 to 23, 5 kilometers. This is the first military air defense system in service with the SV ZRBD as a means of the army or front-line level. In 1967, at the Krug-A air defense missile system, the lower border of the affected area was reduced from 3 km to 250 m, and the near border decreased from 11 to 9 km. After revisions of the missile defense system in 1971 for the new Krug-M air defense system, the far border of the affected area increased from 45 to 50 km, and the upper limit increased from 23.5 to 24.5 km. The Krug-M1 air defense system was put into service in 1974.
Satellite image of Google earth: the position of the Azerbaijani air defense system "Krug" near the border with Armenia
The production of the Krug air defense system was carried out prior to the adoption of the S-300V air defense system. Unlike the S-75 air defense system, with which the Krug has a close engagement zone, deliveries were made only to the Warsaw Pact countries. Currently, complexes of this type are almost universally decommissioned due to resource depletion. Among the CIS countries, the Krug air defense missile systems have been operated for the longest time in Armenia and Azerbaijan.
In 1967, the self-propelled air defense system "Kub" (Divisional self-propelled anti-aircraft missile system "Kub") entered service, designed to provide air defense for tank and motorized rifle divisions of the Soviet Army. The division consisted of an anti-aircraft missile regiment armed with five Cube air defense systems.
SAM Cube
For the combat means of the Kub anti-aircraft missile system, in contrast to the Krug air defense system, they used lighter tracked chassis, similar to those used for the Shilka anti-aircraft self-propelled guns. At the same time, radio equipment was installed on one, and not on two chassis, as in the Krug complex. The self-propelled launcher carried three missiles, not two as in the Krug complex.
SAM was equipped with a semi-active radar seeker placed in front of the rocket. The target was captured from the start, tracking it at the Doppler frequency in accordance with the speed of approach of the missile and the target, which generates control signals for guiding the anti-aircraft guided missile to the target. To protect the homing head from deliberate interference, a hidden target search frequency and the possibility of homing to interference in an amplitude mode of operation were also used.
A combined ramjet propulsion system was used in the rocket. In front of the rocket there was a gas generator chamber and a charge of the engine of the second (sustainer) stage. The fuel consumption in accordance with the flight conditions for the solid-fuel gas generator was impossible to regulate, therefore, to select the form of the charge, a conventional typical trajectory was used, which in those years was considered by the developers to be the most likely during the combat use of the rocket. The nominal operating time is just over 20 seconds, the mass of the fuel charge is about 67 kg with a length of 760 mm.
The use of a ramjet engine ensured the maintenance of a high speed of the missile defense system throughout the entire flight path, which contributed to high maneuverability. The missile ensured hitting a target maneuvering with an overload of up to 8 units, however, the probability of hitting such a target, depending on different conditions, decreased to 0.2-0.55. At the same time, the probability of hitting a non-maneuvering target was 0.4-0. 75. The affected area was 6-8 … 22 km in range, and 0, 1 … 12 km in height.
SAM "Kub" was repeatedly modernized and was in production until 1983. During this time, about 600 complexes were built. The anti-aircraft missile system "Cub" through foreign economic channels under the code "Square" was supplied to the Armed Forces of 25 countries (Algeria, Angola, Bulgaria, Cuba, Czechoslovakia, Egypt, Ethiopia, Guinea, Hungary, India, Kuwait, Libya, Mozambique, Poland, Romania, Yemen, Syria, Tanzania, Vietnam, Somalia, Yugoslavia and others).
Syrian air defense system "Kvadrat"
The "Cube" complex has been successfully used in many military conflicts. Particularly impressive was the use of the missile system in the 1973 Arab-Israeli war, when the Israeli Air Force suffered very significant losses. The effectiveness of the Kvadrat air defense system was determined by the following factors:
- high noise immunity of complexes with semi-active homing;
- the Israeli side does not have electronic countermeasures, and notifications about the illumination of radar illumination operating in the required frequency range - the equipment supplied by the United States was designed to combat the S-125 and S-75 radio command air defense systems;
- high probability of hitting the target by a maneuverable anti-aircraft guided missile with a ramjet engine.
Israeli aviation, lacking the means to suppress the Kvadrat complexes, was forced to use very risky tactics. Multiple entry into the launch zone and subsequent hasty exit from it became the reason for the rapid consumption of the complex's ammunition, after which the weapons of the disarmed missile complex were further destroyed. In addition, the approach of fighter-bombers was used at an altitude close to their practical ceiling, and a further dive into the "dead zone" funnel above the anti-aircraft complex.
Also, the Kvadrat air defense system was used in 1981-1982 during the hostilities in Lebanon, during the conflicts between Egypt and Libya, on the Algerian-Moroccan border, in 1986 when repelling American raids on Libya, in 1986-1987 in Chad, in 1999 in Yugoslavia. Until now, the Kvadrat anti-aircraft missile system is in service in many countries of the world. The combat effectiveness of the complex can be increased without significant structural modifications by using elements of the Buk.
In the early 60s in the USSR, work began on the creation of a portable anti-aircraft missile system (MANPADS) - "Strela-2", which should be used by one anti-aircraft gunner and used in the battalion level of air defense. However, due to the fact that there were reasonable fears that it would not be possible to create a compact MANPADS in a short time, in order to hedge it, it was decided to create a portable air defense system with not so rigid mass-dimensional characteristics. At the same time, it was planned to increase the mass from 15 kg to 25 kg, as well as the diameter and length of the rocket, which made it possible to somewhat increase the range and reach in height.
In April 1968, a new complex called "Strela-1" entered service (Regimental self-propelled anti-aircraft missile system "Strela-1"). An armored reconnaissance patrol vehicle BRDM-2 was used as a base for the Strela-1 self-propelled anti-aircraft missile system.
SAM "Strela-1"
The combat vehicle of the Strela-1 complex was equipped with a launcher with 4 anti-aircraft guided missiles placed on it, located in transport-launch containers, optical aiming and detection equipment, missile launch equipment and communication facilities. To reduce the cost and increase the reliability of the combat vehicle, the launcher was guided to the target by the muscular efforts of the operator.
An aerodynamic "duck" scheme was implemented in the missile defense system of the complex. The missile was aimed at the target using a photocontrast homing head using the proportional navigation method. The rocket was equipped with contact and proximity fuses. The fire was fired on the "fire and forget" principle.
The complex could fire at helicopters and aircraft flying at altitudes of 50-3000 meters at a speed of up to 220 m / s on a catch-up course and up to 310 m / s on a head-on course with course parameters up to 3 thousand m, as well as on hovering helicopters. The capabilities of the photocontrast homing head made it possible to fire only at visually visible targets located against a background of overcast or clear sky, with angles between the directions to the sun and to the target of more than 20 degrees and with an angular excess of the target's line of sight above the visible horizon by more than 2 degrees. The dependence on the background situation, meteorological conditions and target illumination limited the combat use of the Strela-1 anti-aircraft complex. Average statistical assessments of this dependence, taking into account the capabilities of enemy aviation, and later on the practical use of air defense systems in exercises and during military conflicts, showed that the Strela-1 complex could be used quite effectively. The probability of hitting targets moving at a speed of 200 m / s when firing in pursuit was from 0.52 to 0.65, and at a speed of 300 m / s - from 0.47 to 0.49.
In 1970 the complex was modernized. In the modernized version of "Strela-1M", the probability and the target hit area are increased. A passive radio direction finder was introduced into the air defense missile system, which ensured the detection of a target with the onboard radio equipment turned on, its tracking and input into the field of view of an optical sight. It also provided for the possibility of target designation based on information from an anti-aircraft missile system equipped with a passive radio direction finder to other Strela-1 complexes of a simplified configuration (without a direction finder).
SAM "Strela-1" / "Strela-1M" as part of a platoon (4 combat vehicles) were included in the anti-aircraft missile and artillery battery ("Shilka" - "Strela-1") of the tank (motorized rifle) regiment. Air defense systems were supplied to Yugoslavia, the Warsaw Pact countries, Asia, Africa and Latin America. The complexes have repeatedly confirmed their simplicity of operation and rather high efficiency during firing practice and military conflicts.
The ambitious program of creating a mobile air defense system MIM-46 Mauler, undertaken in the same time period in the United States, ended in failure. According to the initial requirements, the Mauler air defense system was a combat vehicle based on the M-113 armored personnel carrier with a package of 12 missiles with a semi-active guidance system and a target guidance and illumination radar.
SAM MIM-46 Mauler
It was assumed that the total mass of the air defense system will be about 11 tons, which will ensure the possibility of its transportation by airplanes and helicopters. However, already at the initial stages of development and testing, it became clear that the initial requirements for the "Mauler" were put forward with excessive optimism. So, the single-stage rocket created for it with a semi-active radar homing head with a starting mass of 50 - 55 kg was supposed to have a range of up to 15 km and a speed of up to 890 m / s, which turned out to be absolutely unrealistic for those years. As a result, in 1965, after spending $ 200 million, the program was closed.
As a temporary alternative, it was proposed to install an AIM-9 Sidewinder air-to-air guided missile (UR) on a ground chassis. The MIM-72A Chaparral air defense missiles practically did not differ from the AIM-9D Sidewinder missiles, on the basis of which they were developed. The main difference was that the stabilizers were mounted on only two tail fins, the other two were fixed. This was done to reduce the launch weight of the rocket launched from the ground. SAM "Chaparel" could fight air targets flying at altitudes of 15-3000 m, at a distance of up to 6000 m.
SAM MIM-72 Chaparral
Like the base "Sidewinder", the MIM-72A missile was guided by the infrared radiation of the target's engines. This made it impossible to shoot on a collision course, and made it possible to attack enemy aircraft only in the tail, which, however, was considered insignificant for the complex of forward cover of troops. The guidance of the system was carried out manually, by an operator visually tracking the target. The operator had to aim the sight at the target, keeping the enemy in sight, activate the missile seeker, and when they capture the target, conduct a volley. Although it was originally supposed to equip the complex with an automated targeting system, this was eventually abandoned, since the electronics of that time spent too much time developing a firing solution, and this reduced the reaction speed of the complex.
Launch SAM MIM-72 Chaparral
The development of the complex went very quickly. All the main elements of the system have already been worked out, so in 1967 the first missiles entered testing. In May 1969, the first missile battalion equipped with the MIM-72 "Chaparral" was deployed to the troops. The installation was mounted on the chassis of the M730 tracked conveyor.
In the future, as new versions of the AIM-9 Sidewinder missile system were created and adopted, the air defense missile system was modernized in the late 80s, in order to increase noise immunity, some of the early versions of the missile depots were equipped with the FIM-92 Stinger MANPADS seeker. In total, the US Army received about 600 Chaparel air defense systems. Finally, this complex was removed from service in the United States in 1997.
In the 60-70s, the United States failed to create anything like the Soviet mobile air defense systems "Circle" and "Cube". However, the American military for the most part considered the air defense system as an aid in the fight against the strike aircraft of the Warsaw Pact countries. It should also be remembered that the territory of the United States, with the exception of a short period of the Caribbean crisis, was never in the zone of operation of Soviet tactical aviation, at the same time the territory of the USSR and the countries of Eastern Europe was within the reach of tactical and carrier-based aircraft of the United States and NATO. This was the strongest motive for the development of the adoption of various anti-aircraft systems in the USSR.
