The second material, dedicated to the Etruscan military affairs, will be based on the works of, again, English-speaking historians, who also had the museums of Rome and Tuscany and, of course, British museums, which contain many interesting finds. Perhaps the most accessible for the Russian reader in this regard was and remains Peter Connolly, whose book "Greece and Rome in Wars" (in Russian translation "Greece and Rome. Encyclopedia of Military History") was published by the Eksmo Publishing House already … sixteen years ago … That is … little by little it is becoming a rarity, and many have no longer read it simply because of their age. An interesting edition is the English translation of the French author Michel Fuger "The Weapons of the Romans" (2002), which also has a section on the Etruscans and their weapons, although not a large one. And although there are no color illustrations, only graphics and black and white photos, this is a great job for anyone interested in the military affairs of Rome.
Situations from Chiusi VII century. BC NS. (610 - 600) “Women with braids stand, and a man in a Corinthian helmet with a crest is approaching them. But women ignore him, as can be seen from the proudly crossed arms on the chest. Archaeological Museum of Florence.
In the first article, "Etruscans against the Russians," it was about where the Etruscans, along with their cows, moved to Italy. Now we will talk about the fact that here the Etruscans founded the city-policies of the Greek model, and each Etruscan city, just like the Greek city-states, began to have its own army. The cities were allies, but very rarely acted together, which greatly weakened them. For some kind of campaign, they could join forces, but more often they wasted forces in the struggle of one city with another.
In the VII century. BC. the Etruscans adopted Greek tactics and the Greek phalanx. Accordingly, they used a 12 by 8 hoplite formation with four hurricane commanders.
Situola from Chiusi, which clearly shows warriors in hoplite armor. Archaeological Museum of Florence.
Like the late Romans, the Etruscans tried to use the army supplied by their allies or conquered peoples. Peter Connolly believes that the Roman army of early Roman history was a typical Etruscan army. Under Tarquinius the Ancient - the first Etruscan king of Rome, it included three parts: the Etruscans (built by the phalanx), the Romans and the Latins. Warriors armed with spears, axes and darts were placed on the flanks, as reported by Polybius, who saw with his own eyes the text of the very first treaty with Carthage, concluded around 509 BC. According to him, it was written in archaic Latin, so that it could be understood only partially.
Etruscan warrior from Viterbe. OK. 500 BC Louvre.
Servius Tullius, the second of the Etruscan kings, being of Latin origin, decided to reorganize the army according to income, instead of origin. Six categories were established, the very first of which included the richest people, who numbered 80 centuri by Roman account, or suckers in Greek. Most of these people, apparently, were the same Etruscans. Warriors from this category needed to have a helmet, shell, greaves, shield, spear and, of course, a sword. Titus Livy used the word clipeus to describe their shield, and Dionysius called the shields of this century Argolian (Argivian) shields. That is, all these people were armed like hoplites and were built for battle with a phalanx. They had at their disposal two centuries of gunsmiths and builders (they were called fabri - "craftsmen", hence the word "factory"), which did not take part in the battles themselves.
Etruscan shield from Tarquinius. Altes Museum, Berlin.
In the second category, there were 20 centuries. Armed these warriors were simpler and, in particular, did not have shells and used the scutum shield instead of the more expensive Argivian shield. Both Dionysius and Diodorus unanimously claimed that it was rectangular, and archeology has confirmed this. The famous Kertossa situla was discovered dating back to 500 BC, decorated with chasing with images of warriors with Argivian, oval and also rectangular shields in their hands. That is, it is obvious that the shape of the shields was very different, and that some single pattern was missing!
Kertossian situla. And on it are images of warriors, circa 500 BC. Their study allows us to conclude that in Italy three types of shields were used at the same time. It is possible that on it we see typical Etruscan warriors of this time. Museum of Archeology in Bologna, Italy.
The third category also consisted of 20 centuries. These warriors were distinguished by the absence of leggings, apparently, which were quite expensive, if their presence or absence had such a striking effect on income. The fourth category was also divided into 20 centuries. Livy reports that they were armed with a spear and a dart, but Dionysius armed them with a scutum, a spear, and a sword. The fifth category of the 30 centuries for Libya consisted of slingers, while Dionysius also adds dart throwers who fought out of line to the slingers. The fifth grade consisted of two centuries of buglers and trumpeters. Finally, the poorest population was completely exempted from military service. The army was divided according to age into veterans serving in the cities, while the stronger youth campaigned outside their territory.
Etruscan pottery vessel depicting fighting warriors. One of them is dressed in a typical "linen shell". Martin von Wagner Museum, University Museum (Würzburg).
That is, the difference that the description of these two ancient authors gives us is small, so there is no reason not to believe them. Most likely, the second, third and fourth ranks acted on the flanks in the same way as the Allies did before the reform of Servius Tullius. Livy, however, claims that they formed the second, third and fourth rows in the general battle formation. If all Roman citizens formed the central part of the army, then maybe this order was just the prototype of the legion of the republican era, when soldiers of different weapons were lined up in three lines. Otherwise, it is difficult to imagine how such a construction looked like in reality. Be that as it may, it is known that when it was required to convene an army, each century collected the required number of soldiers. So, if an army of ten thousand was needed, then each centuria equipped two enomotias, that is, 50 people.
Etruscan burial urn, mid-2nd millennium BC Worcester Museum of Art in Worcester, Massachusetts, USA.
Then the Etruscans were expelled from Rome, but at the same time the army lost a large part of the soldiers belonging to the first class. Naturally, this lowered the level of its combat capability. No wonder Livy wrote that round shields (and, consequently, the phalanx) were used by the Romans until the introduction of service fees at the end of the 5th century. With the abolition of tsarist power, the role of commanders was assumed by two praetors, whose institution functioned until the middle of the 4th century, and each of them commanded half of the army.
Etruscans against the Romans. Etruscan warriors from the temple at Purgi in Cerveteri c. 550 - 500 BC BC. National Etruscan Museum, Villa Giulia, Rome.
Just like Livy, Dionysius of Halicarnassus reports on the reorganization in the Etruscan-Roman army, which he carried out in the middle of the 6th century. Servius Tullius. Both accounts are essentially identical and most likely date back to Fabius Lictor, who wrote the history of Rome around 200 BC. It is believed that his information is based on documents from that era. In any case, the position of the praetor - the commander of the veteran warriors - remained at a later time under the name praetor urbanus, although his functions now relate exclusively to judicial activity. The two chief magistrates were now called consuls, and the word "praetor" denoted magistrates of the second class; during the time of Polybius there were already six of them.
Achilles bandaging the wounded Patroclus. Both figures in linothorax ("linen shells") reinforced with scales, Patroclus's untied left shoulder strap straightened. Image from a red-figure vase from Vulci, circa 500 BC NS. Painting of a red-figure attic vessel. State Museums, Old Museum, Collection of Antiquities, Berlin.
The warriors who belonged to the phalanx and belonged to the first category had weapons of the Greek model, that is, a round Argivian shield, chased bronze carapace, anatomical leggings, a helmet, a spear and a sword. However, although the Etruscans fought with a phalanx, even axes are found in their burials, which can hardly be fought while in close formation. But perhaps, Connolly writes, these weapons were placed in the tomb according to custom. On the other hand, it was possible to fight with an ax in one-on-one duels, such as the one shown in the sculptural image of two hoplites from Phaleria Veteres. They are both armed in the Greek style, except for a curved dagger in the hand of one of the fighters. But one thing is a weapon in the composition of funeral equipment, and it is definitely impossible to use an ax in a phalanx.
Modern reconstruction of the appearance of an Etruscan warrior based on finds in Tarquinia. Altes Museum, Berlin.
The painting from Cheri (scientists call them their finds as "a warrior from Cheri" or somewhere else …) shows a typical hoplite in a Chalcedian helmet and with round breast plates. The image from Chiusi shows a hoplite in full Greek armor, but his helmet is adorned with feathers in the Italian, and by no means Greek, pattern. Well, the finds in the "Tomb of the Warrior in Vulchi" (about 525 BC) give an example of the presence of mixed types of weapons: a helmet - Negau, an Argive shield and Greco-Etruscan leggings.
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Etruscan ship. Painting in a tomb in Tarquinia.
Judging by the frescoes in the tombs, Greek shells were widespread among the Etruscans; finds of disc-shaped breastplates dating to the first half of the 7th century are known. However, their exact dating is difficult, since where and when they were found remained unclear. The painting from Cheri, which can in no way be dated earlier than the end of the 6th century, suggests that this type of armor was also used much later than the 7th century. By the way, we see the same discs on Assyrian bas-reliefs, and even later samples of them were found in Spain and also in central Europe. Connolly believes they are clearly of oriental origin. The "painting from Chery" shows that they are attached to the torso with three straps, most likely leather. Why three? And on their back, three loops are usually found: two at the top and one at the bottom, which fastened this disc to belts in a very clever way. Why it was impossible to fasten it on four belts crosswise, like the same Assyrians, is unknown. Although there are examples of such an attachment.
The most popular early helmet in Etruria was the Negau type helmet, named after a village in Yugoslavia, near which they were found in abundance. An interesting specimen was discovered in Olympia, and you can see it in the British Museum. The inscription on it says that he was dedicated to the temple by a certain Hieron, the son of Deinomenes, and the inhabitants of Syracuse, who captured him from the Etruscans in the naval battle of Kumah in 474 BC. The earliest example of such a helmet that can be dated was found in the "Tomb of the Warrior" in Vulci. They were used without any changes until the 4th, and maybe even up to the 3rd centuries. BC. A characteristic feature of the Negau helmets was a bronze ring with holes along its inner edge, intended for attaching a comforter, thanks to which it sat tightly on the head. The helmet had a low crest, which was sometimes located across. P. Connolly notes that such helmets were worn by Roman centurions, and he is also on the famous statuette depicting a Spartan hoplite.
Etruscan warrior. Mars from Todi. Gregorian Etruscan Museum, Vatican.
It is, of course, tempting to assert that it mattered in some way, for example, that such an ornament was the insignia of the Lohags; and why it was then adopted by the centurions is understandable. However, this is just speculation. There is no evidence for this opinion.
Leggings in Etruria were of the Greek type, without an anatomically defined knee. They were used in the same way as helmets of the Negau type (i.e. until the 4th-3rd centuries), and this is undoubtedly, since they are often found together.
Surprisingly, for some reason in Etruria, protective armor for the thighs, ankles and feet was used even when they were no longer used in mainland Greece. Bracers were also used there for just as long. A curved sword, or copis, common in Greece and Spain from the 6th to the 3rd centuries. BC, according to P. Connolly, may trace its origin from Etruria, since it was here that the earliest samples of this weapon, dating from the 7th century, were found. BC. The bronze "saber" from Este in northern Italy could just be the forerunner of this terrible weapon and confirms its Italian origin.
Magnificent finds from the "Tomb of the Warrior" in Lanuvia near Rome, dating from 480 BC. Combat equipment includes a bronze muscular (anatomical) cuirass (with traces of leather and linen lining), a bronze helmet of the Negau type (with gilding and silvering, as well as glass paste in imitation of holes for the eyes), and a copis sword. Other finds include a bronze sports disc, two iron body scrapers, and an olive oil bottle. Baths of Diocletian National Museum, Rome.
Etruscan and early Greek swords of this type were cutting weapons with a blade about 60 - 65 cm long. Later samples from Macedonia and Spain were cutting-thrusting weapons with a blade, the length of which did not exceed 48 cm.
Breastplate from the "Tomb of the Warrior".
The tombs of the Greeks and Etruscans were very different, and their views on the afterlife were also different. Here is a tomb from the archaeological reserve at Cape Macronides in Ayia Napa, Cyprus. The door is a little more than a meter high, inside the room is at least 1.5 m high into two "beds" without a hint of painting. With the Etruscans, everything is completely different.
The Etruscan spears had a variety of tips. For example, these are long tips of the Villanov type. In the tomb of the 5th century. at Vulci they found a typical pilum point, with a tube for fastening to a shaft. This means that such a weapon was already fought at that time, and it has been known for a long time.
In the IV and III centuries. BC. in Etruria, they still continued to use the Greek heritage in the field of weapons, and later adopted their late classical Greek style as well. On the sarcophagus of the Amazons and on the tomb of Giglioli (both monuments are located in Tarquinia), you can see images of typical Thracian helmets of the 4th century. BC. and linen shells, however, they began to be covered with metal plates. They can be clearly seen, for example, on the famous statue of Mars from Todi, which is depicted in typical Etruscan armor. At the same time, images of chain mail already appeared on the funeral urns, that is, the Etruscans also knew them. Moreover, by design it was the same "linen cuirass", but only chain mail. Well, the Romans adopted it along with all the other "finds" of the peoples surrounding Rome.
Interestingly, on Etruscan sculptures, anatomical shells painted with gray paint are often visible. But this does not mean that they are iron; it is much more likely that they were simply silver-plated or even tin-plated and, perhaps, later in the Roman army. The image of the muscles is usually highly stylized, which makes it easy to distinguish between Etruscan and Greek armor.
Tomb of the Lionesses in Tarquinia. Neither the Greeks nor the Slavs had anything like this.
Full Etruscan armor was found in the "Tomb of the Seven Rooms" in Orvieto, near Lake Bolsena. It consists of a typical Etruscan carapace of an anatomical type, leggings of the Greek late classical type, an Argive shield, and a Montefortine-type helmet with characteristic cheek pads with three discs stamped on them. The pilum became a throwing weapon. The pointed pilum type first appeared in northern Italy in the 5th century. A pillum with a flat tongue, which fits into a slot on the shaft and was secured with one or two wooden rods, was depicted in the tomb of Giglioli in Tarquinia, sometime in the middle of the 4th century BC, but the earliest archaeological find of such a tip dates back to the end III century. and was made again in Etruria, in Telamon. Thus, P. Connolly concludes, the genesis of Etruscan weapons is directly related to the weapons and armor of the ancient Greeks, and then they themselves borrowed (or invented) something, and the Romans, in turn, borrowed it from them.
But the most important thing in the culture of the Etruscans is again connected not even with their military affairs, but with funeral rites. And this once again confirms the fact that the Etruscans had nothing in common with the Slavs. The fact is that the traditions of commemorating the dead and burying them are among the most persistent. The custom of commemorative battles on the grave of the deceased, borrowed by the Romans as entertainment, the tradition of arranging painted tombs - we do not see anything of this among the Slavs, there is not even a hint of it, but this is the most important attribute of spiritual culture, which has been preserved for many hundreds, if not thousands years!
An Etruscan vessel found in one of their tombs. This is how they looked at that distant time. Louvre.
This site will help you visit the Gregorian Etruscan Vatican Museum. There you can see the halls of the museum (and not only, in fact, this museum) and photographs (and descriptions) of the artifacts exhibited there:
The alphabet, dictionary and much more can be found at the address below:
And here is all the Etruscan news!
