Cuban rebel and colonizer - two "patriots" from a propaganda poster from the Spanish-American war
At 21 hours 40 minutes on February 15, 1898, a powerful explosion disrupted the measured life of the Havana raid. Anchored American armored cruiser Maine, whose hull broke at the bow tower, quickly sank, killing 260 people with it. Cuba at that time was the Spanish governorship-general, and relations between Spain and the United States could literally be called explosive. The measures taken by the Spanish authorities were effective and prompt: the wounded crew members received the necessary medical care and were placed in a hospital. The first witness to the incident was interviewed by the relevant authorities within an hour. Eyewitnesses emphasized the selfless actions of the crew of the Spanish cruiser Alfonso XII in helping the Americans. The news of the sad event was urgently transmitted by telegraph. And right there in the USA, similar informational "detonations" and "explosions" began to occur in the editorial offices of various newspapers. The masters of sharpened feathers, the artisans of the mighty workshop of Her Majesty the Press gave a powerful and, most importantly, a friendly salvo at the perpetrators of the tragedy, whose guilt was already set by default. Spain remembered a lot, because the little that was not mentioned was already sore on edge by this point. "Colonial tyranny is strangling Cubans!" - the nimble newspapermen yelled. "At our side!" - edifyingly raising a finger, added the venerable congressmen. “A little more than a hundred miles,” respectable businessmen practically specified. America was already an amazing country, where the professions of a businessman and a congressman were intricately intertwined. And very soon the symbiosis of politics and business led to a predictable result - to war.
Colonizers of modern times
The once huge Spanish Empire stretching across four continents by the end of the 19th century was only a modest shadow of ancient indestructible greatness. Longing for forever lost power, showing the bottom of the treasury, a series of successive political crises and turmoil. Having long lost its place in the top league of world powers, Spain has become an ordinary spectator of global political processes. From the former colonial luxury, only the Philippines, Cuba, Puerto Rico and Guam remained on the map as lonely overseas fragments, not counting the smaller islands and archipelagos in the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean.
Most of the Spanish colonies said goodbye to their metropolis in the first half of the 19th century. Those who remained to the best of their ability tried to follow the example of those who had left earlier. The progressive weakness of the metropolis in all respects was naturally projected onto its overseas territories. In the colonies, the decline and dominance of the administration reigned, which, without much modesty, was engaged in improving its own well-being. And with a degrading center, the outskirts quickly find themselves on the fault line. The Philippines was seething, but Cuba was of particular concern, and even then among the most perspicacious.
On February 24, 1895, an armed uprising broke out in the eastern regions of this island, aiming to achieve independence. The number of insurgents began to grow rapidly, and within a few months their number exceeded 3 thousand people. At first, the fighting in Cuba did not cause much excitement in the United States, but gradually interest in what was happening grew. The reason for this is not the sudden sympathy and Samaritan kindness for the local rebels, but the reason is much more trivial - money.
After the end of the Civil War, the country did not fall into the swamp of stagnation, contrary to some too pessimistic forecasts, but, on the contrary, began to develop rapidly. The last proud Aboriginal people were herded into the reservation so that they would not get confused by the energetic and dexterous white settlers. Correct protectionist laws contributed to the leap in industrial production. And now the strengthened "land of opportunities" has begun to look for new opportunities for itself beyond its own borders. They began to invest in Cuba, and quite a lot. In 1890, the American Sugar Trust was established, owning most of the island's sugar cane production. Subsequently, the Americans took de facto control over the tobacco trade and the export of iron ore. Spain turned out to be a poor business executive - income from the colonies was steadily declining. It was based on profits from taxes, customs duties and an ever-shrinking share in trade. Taxes and duties steadily increased, the appetites of the corrupt colonial administration grew, and soon all this "gilded antiquity" at its side began to interfere with the fast-paced American business.
At first, calls to seize control of the old Spanish colonies sounded from the most belligerent democratic publications, but soon, as the convenient and anticipating thought of hunting and prey evolved, the idea became popular in closely intertwined business and political circles. The ships, loaded with weapons for the rebels, were initially delayed by the Americans, but later turned a blind eye to them. The scale of the uprising made us think - in the fall of 1895, eastern Cuba was already cleared of government troops, and in the next year, in 1896, an anti-Spanish armed uprising began in the Philippines. US policy is changing: sensing the benefits of the situation, they quickly changed the mask of a simple contemplator of what was happening to the guise of a kind defender of the oppressed islanders. There is no doubt that the colonial regime of the Spaniards was undermined by worms and was vicious in its essence. The Americans wanted to replace it with a more sophisticated one, wrapped in a shiny shell of loud slogans about the "fight for freedom."
Spain was far from in the best shape to back up its objections to interference in the internal affairs of its colonies with something more substantial than sophisticated diplomatic maneuvers. For the defense of this small (compared with the old days), but widely spread economy, there was no longer enough strength or funds. The Spanish fleet mirrored all the processes taking place in the country, and was by no means in the best shape. However, it was believed that this very form of "Armada Espanola" was irretrievably lost in the era of the Invincible Armada. By the beginning of hostilities, Spain had three battleships: Pelayo, Numancia and Vitoria. Of these, only the Pelayo, built in 1887, was a classic battleship, the other two were obsolete frigates of the late 1860s. and did not pose a serious threat. In the ranks of the fleet there were 5 armored cruisers, of which the newest "Cristobal Colon" (a ship purchased in Italy belonging to the "Giuseppe Garibaldi" type) looked the most modern. However, the Colon was found in Toulon, where he was preparing to install new main-caliber guns, since the 254-mm guns of Armstrong did not suit the Spaniards. As is the case in such cases, the old tools were dismantled, and the new ones have not yet been installed. And the Cristobal Colon went to war without its main caliber. Light cruisers were represented by 7 armored cruisers of the 1st rank, 9 cruisers of the 2nd and 3rd ranks, most of them obsolete, 5 gunboats, 8 destroyers and a number of armed steamers. The navy did not receive sufficient funding, exercises and shooting practice were rare, and personnel training left much to be desired. The country's ruling Queen-Regent Maria Christina of Austria under the young King Alfonso XIII had enough menacingly gaping holes in the economy that required resources and attention, and the military was clearly not paramount.
The United States, overgrown with industrial and financial muscle, was in a different situation. Since the United States embarked on a new period in its history - the colonial expansion - then a fleet was needed to resolve such geopolitical issues. By the beginning of the war, the main ship group in the Atlantic was the North Atlantic Ocean Squadron. Its composition was as follows: 2 battleships (another battleship, "Oregon", made the transition from San Francisco and arrived at the theater of war in May 1898), 4 nautical monitors, 5 armored cruisers, 8 gunboats, 1 armed yacht, 9 destroyers and more than 30 armed steamers and auxiliary vessels. The unit was commanded by Rear Admiral William Sampson, who held his flag on the armored cruiser New York. The squadron was based at the base in Key West.
To protect against possible actions from the Spanish raiders (as subsequent events showed, imaginary), the Northern Guard Squadron was formed from one armored cruiser, 4 auxiliary cruisers and one armored ram, the usefulness of which in pursuit of high-speed raiders was in doubt. To prevent crisis situations and sudden dangerous moments, the Flying Squadron of Commodore Winfield Scott Schley was also formed from 2 battleships, 1 armored cruiser, 3 cruisers and one armed yacht.
At first glance, the situation in the overland confrontation was far from in favor of the Americans. Their armed forces did not exceed 26 thousand people, while in Cuba alone there were 22 thousand Spanish soldiers and almost 60 thousand armed irregulars. The Spanish peacetime army numbered more than 100 thousand people and could be increased to 350-400 thousand in case of mobilization. However, in the upcoming war, victory could be gained primarily by the one who controlled the sea communications (by the way, this approach was expressed in the recently published in the USA and already gaining popularity book by Alfred Mahan "The Influence of Sea Power on History").
Compromises are the road to war
The Maine incident caused the effect of pouring a bucket of gasoline onto embers. American society has already been carefully prepared with the correct emphasis placed in the information processing thereof. As early as January 11, 1898, the Naval Ministry sent out a circular ordering to delay the demobilization of the lower ranks, whose service life was coming to an end. Two cruisers under construction in England by order of Argentina were urgently bought out and prepared for an immediate crossing of the Atlantic. On the morning of January 24, the Spanish ambassador to Washington was simply presented with the fact that President William McKinley had ordered the cruiser Maine to be sent to Cuba to defend US interests with the mocking wording: "to testify to the success of the Spanish peace policy in Cuba." The next day, the Maine dropped anchor in the roadstead of Havana. The Governor General of Cuba, Marshal Ramon Blanco, officially protested the presence of "Maine" on the roadstead of Havana, but the American administration did not react to such a trifle. While the American cruiser "defended and testified," her officers drew up a careful plan for Havana's coastal fortifications and batteries. Spain's timid protests were ignored.
On February 6, a group of caring publics, in particular 174 businessmen with direct interests in Cuba, petitioned McKinley to intervene on the island and protect American interests there. McKinley - the president who is considered in many respects along with Theodore Roosevelt the founder of American imperialism - was no longer averse to fighting. And then on February 15, the Maine exploded so successfully. The American commission sent to Cuba carried out an accelerated investigation, the essence of which boiled down to the conclusion that the ship had died from an underwater mine explosion. It was tactfully not indicated who set the mine, but in an atmosphere of growing military hysteria, it no longer mattered.
On February 27, the US Department of the Navy increased the combat readiness of the fleet, and on March 9, Congress unanimously decided to allocate an additional $ 50 million to strengthen the national defense. The armament of coastal batteries began, the construction of new fortifications. Steamships and auxiliary cruisers were hastily armed. Then began a diplomatic spectacle organized by the United States, aimed at forcing Spain to strike first. On March 20, the American government demanded that the Spaniards make peace with the rebels no later than April 15.
Seeing that the situation was taking a serious turn, Madrid turned to the European powers and the Pope to submit the case to international arbitration. In parallel, it was agreed to conclude a truce with the rebels, if they asked for it. On April 3, the Spanish government agreed to the mediation of the Pope, but demanded the withdrawal of the American fleet from Key West after the conclusion of the armistice. Of course, the Americans refused. In addition, McKinley assured Europe that his country is sincerely striving for peace, the only obstacle to which is these insidious and vicious Spaniards. Madrid made unprecedented concessions, declaring that it was ready to conclude an armistice with the rebels immediately. Such a compromise situation did not suit Washington at all, and it put forward new, even more radical demands. On April 19, Congress decided on the need to intervene in Cuba, and the next day the Spanish ambassador was simply handed an ultimatum: Madrid had to give up its rights to Cuba and withdraw its troops from the island. The demands were already beyond the bounds, and they were expectedly rejected - Spain broke off diplomatic relations. To joyful and stormy applause, the villain was finally found. On April 22, the American fleet began to blockade Cuba in a "civilized" manner. On April 25, the Spanish-American War began.
Admiral's Squadron Campaign Servers
Rear Admiral Pascual Server
The Spanish government began to take some steps militarily even before the outbreak of hostilities. On April 8, 1898, a detachment of Spanish cruisers left Cadiz for the island of São Vicente (Cape Verde): the Infanta Maria Teresa under the flag of Rear Admiral Pascual Cervera and the newest Cristobal Colon, which was virtually devoid of main battery artillery. On April 19, two more Spanish cruisers arrived at San Vicente: Vizcaya and Almirante Oquendo. On April 29, the squadron, including 4 of the above listed armored cruisers and 3 destroyers, which were towed to save coal, left the parking lot and headed west. Thus began the naval expedition, the end of which largely determined the timing and results of the war.
Preparations for the implementation of the Atlantic crossing were done very badly. The ships were not in the best technical condition, their crews did not have the experience of long campaigns, and as for the shooting, the situation tended to a bare theory. The reason was prosaic - lack of funds. Even before the outbreak of hostilities, Server demanded appropriations for the purchase of 50 thousand tons of coal and 10 thousand shells for practical shooting. To which he received a sacramental answer from the Ministry of the Navy: "There is no money." The admiral himself opposed the campaign with such forces, offering to concentrate on the Canary Islands most of the Spanish fleet in order to march with large forces.
The squadron, being on an island belonging to Portugal, intensively exchanged telegrams with Madrid, but in the capital they were relentless and demanded action. The Servers were required to protect Cuba and prevent the landing of American troops. How this could have been done with such modest and, most importantly, unprepared forces, was not specified. Perhaps the staff admirals seriously hoped that the tarnished gold of the Spanish banner would mercilessly blind the American gunners, or that at the first shots the enemy sailors would rush to the boats. One way or another, but the campaign began. The Spanish forces in the Caribbean were very modest. In Havana, the cruiser Alfonso XII, three gunboats, an armed transport and several smaller ships were parked with unpatched vehicles. An old light cruiser, two gunboats and a messenger ship were based in San Juan, Puerto Rico.
The trip took place in difficult conditions. The detachment dragged the destroyers in tow and therefore was limited in speed. The Americans were alarmed by the movement of the Servers and took a number of measures. It was clear that the Spaniards did not have enough coal for operations against the Atlantic coast itself, and yet they were seriously preparing to repel the attacks of the Spanish raiders. At the beginning of the war, a lot of resources were spent to ensure coastal defense - later these costly measures turned out to be unjustified. Perhaps, had the Spanish admiral had more freedom of action and initiative, he could be based in San Juan, from where he could cause the Americans much more trouble and harm.
On May 12, 1898, the Cervera squadron reached Martinique, France, with its coal bunkers already very depleted. When asked to allow the purchase of coal for Spanish ships, the French Governor-General refused. Then Cervera moved to Dutch Curacao. One of the destroyers, the Terror, was abandoned in Martinique due to a breakdown in the engine room. The Dutch acted in the same vein as their French counterparts: the Spaniards received only a small amount of fuel of rather poor quality. In addition, the admiral was overtaken by the news that on May 12, the American squadron of Admiral Sampson appeared in San Juan's sight and carried out a bombardment of this port, firing about a thousand shells. The forts and coastal batteries suffered little damage, after which Sampson returned to Havana. Of course, the press in the United States fanned this incident to an unprecedented level of victory. The news of the appearance of an enemy near San Juan and an acute shortage of coal influenced the decision of Cervera to go not to Puerto Rico, but to the nearest Spanish-controlled Cuban port of Santiago.
In many ways, this determined the further fate of the squadron. On the morning of May 19, 1898, a Spanish squadron, unnoticed by the enemy, entered Santiago. The port was not adapted for the basing of such a large connection; there were no more than 2500 tons of coal in its coal warehouses. From their agents, the Americans soon learned about the appearance of the much-anticipated Servers in Santiago, and blocking forces began to gather there, primarily Schlea's Flying Squadron. The Spanish ships were not in the best condition, their machines and mechanisms needed repair. The port did not have any equipment for loading coal, and therefore it had to be taken on board in portions with the help of boats, which utterly delayed the loading.
The Governor-General of Cuba, Marshal Blanco, on the one hand, understood that Santiago was not well suited for basing the Server compound, and on the other, he wanted to strengthen the defense of Havana. How useful the Spanish cruisers would be in the capital of the governorship general is a moot point, but telegrams were sent to the admiral with requests, and soon with demands to break through to Havana. Server, supported by the commanders of his ships, resisted the onslaught of the governor, arguing his actions with the low combat capability of the forces entrusted to him and the order of command - Blanco was not his direct commander. The persistent marshal turned to Madrid for support.
Winfield Scott Schley
While the intense telegraph battles were going on, Shlei appeared at Santiago. On May 31, he fired at the coastal batteries without any serious result. On June 1, Sampson, who had the battleships Oregon and New York, approached and took overall command. On June 3, the Americans tried to block the Santiago fairway by flooding the coal miner with the sonorous name "Merrimac", but this sacrifice was in vain - the coal miner sank not across, but along the fairway.
Meanwhile, preparations for the landing operation were in full swing in the United States. The matter was complicated by the fact that the Americans had no experience in such large-scale enterprises. The transport fleet was formed near Tampa (Florida) - it was supposed to transport an expeditionary force of 13 thousand regular troops and 3 thousand volunteers under the command of Major General Shafter, including the 1st Rough Riders Volunteer Cavalry Regiment, formed by Theodore Roosevelt. Initially, the landing was to take place in the Havana area, however, at the urgent request of Sampson, it was redirected to Santiago. Even blocked in the bay, the Servers squadron posed, in the opinion of the Americans, a serious threat. It was impossible to take the Spanish port from the sea, the bombing was useless - therefore, a radical solution of the issue was required.
On June 20, the ships of the American convoy dropped anchor in the bay west of Santiago, and on June 22, a full-scale landing began in the area of the village of Siboney. The Spaniards did not fix any serious obstacles. By the evening of June 24, most of the American expeditionary force had landed. It should be noted that Santiago was not prepared for defense from land - the ancient fortifications, remembering the times of corsairs and filibusters of the 17th century, were supplemented with hastily dug earthen redoubts. Some of the guns located there were more antique than military value. And most importantly, the Spanish command did not bother to create any significant food reserves in the city.
Despite the fact that the American offensive developed rather slowly and chaotically, the Spaniards rated their chances of holding Santiago extremely low. On July 2, 1898, Cervera received a categorical order from Madrid for an immediate breakthrough to Havana. There was nowhere to go, and the Spanish admiral began to prepare for the campaign. The personnel were recalled from the shore to the ships. The breakout was scheduled for the morning of July 3.
Fight at Santiago
The moment for going to sea was chosen quite well. The battleship Massachusetts, the light cruisers New Orleans and Newark left to replenish their coal reserves. The commander of the blocking squadron, Sampson, departed in his flagship, the armored cruiser New York, to negotiate with the command of the Spanish rebels. Commodore Schley, who took command on the morning of July 3, 1898, had at Santiago the armored cruiser Brooklyn, the 1st class battleships Iowa, Indiana and Oregon, the 2nd class battleship Texas and the auxiliary cruisers Gloucester and Vixen. The advantage in the salvo undoubtedly remained with the Americans, but the Spanish ships were faster - only the Brooklyn could compare with them in speed.
At 9:30 in the morning, a Spanish squadron appeared at the exit from the bay. The leader was the flagship of the Servers "Infanta Maria Teresa", followed by the "Vizcaya", "Cristobal Colon" and "Almirante Oquendo" in the wake. The destroyers "Pluto" and "Furor" were moving at a short distance from them. In this battle, "Cristobal Colon" could only rely on its auxiliary caliber artillery: ten 152-mm and six 120-mm guns. The Spanish squadron, after leaving the bay, gave full speed and headed for the flagship Brooklyn, which Cervera considered the most dangerous enemy for himself because of her speed. Therefore, it was decided to attack him first.
Armored cruiser "Brooklyn"
Noticing the Spaniards, the Americans raised the signals "the enemy is coming out" and moved towards them. Sampson's instructions gave the ship commanders a lot of initiative. Battleships "Iowa", "Oregon", "Indiana" and "Texas" turned left, trying to cross the course of the Spanish squadron, but their speed was clearly not sufficient, and they lay on a parallel course. After exchanging the first volleys with the Brooklyn, Server changed course and headed west along the coast. Subsequently, the Spanish admiral was criticized for the lack of persistence in fire contact with the "Brooklyn". Obviously, the presence of battleships with their 330-305-mm artillery did not allow, in the opinion of the Spanish admiral, to tinker with the American cruiser for a long time.
Burnt cruiser "Almirante Oquendo"
Long-range combat turned into a chase, where the Spaniards continued to move in a wake column, and the Americans did not observe any formation. Soon, the Infanta Maria Teresa began to receive hits, and a fire broke out on it. As luck would have it, the fire main was broken by shrapnel, and it became very difficult to extinguish the fire on the ship, in the construction of which wood was widely used. The ship's commander was wounded, and Server took over command of the cruiser. The fire widened, and it was not possible to take control of it - the admiral decided to throw the Infanta Maria Teresa ashore. Disabled to the left, diverting the fire to himself and letting all his ships pass, Server directed the cruiser towards the shore. By this time, the cruiser Almirante Oquendo, which was on the way, received a number of damages, also caught fire and soon followed the example of the flagship, throwing itself ashore about 10 hours. The destroyers, which came under fire from the Indiana and Iowa, were soon damaged, and the reprisals were completed by the auxiliary cruisers Gloucester and Vixen. At 10 hours 10 minutes "Furor" sank, and the heavily damaged "Pluto" washed ashore.
U. S. Navy Medal for the Spanish Campaign of 1898
The Cristobal Colon and Vizcaya, meanwhile, were heading west at full speed. They were pursued by the forward Brooklyn and the battleship Oregon, whose vehicles were in excellent condition. Soon, Cristobal Colon left the Vizcaya far behind, throwing her face to face with overwhelming forces. Hits multiplied and at 10.45, engulfed in flames, "Vizcaya" washed ashore 20 miles from the entrance to the Bay of Santiago. The pursuit of the newest cruiser of the Server squadron was longer, but the Americans achieved their goal. The poor quality of coal, the fatigue of the stokers and the poor condition of the machines forced the Colon to slow down, which the enemy immediately took advantage of. At about one o'clock in the afternoon, the cruiser found herself in the zone of fire from the Oregon, whose first volley of 330-mm main caliber immediately gave cover. The demoralized Spaniards turned ashore, lowered their flag and threw their ship ashore 50 miles from Santiago. Subsequently, American newspapers claimed that before surrendering, Spanish officers carefully packed their suitcases - it is difficult to judge how true this is.
The battle ended in a convincing victory for the American fleet. It is curious that in the midst of the battle, the Austro-Hungarian cruiser Kaiserin und Königen Maria Theresia approached Santiago to observe what was happening. Inflamed by the battle, the Yankees almost attacked the Austrian, mistaking him for another Spanish cruiser, and he had to call the orchestra on deck to urgently play the American anthem.
The Spaniards lost about 400 people killed and 150 wounded and burned. About 1,800 people were captured, including Admiral Cervera. The losses of the Americans were insignificant and amounted to several killed and wounded. Brooklyn received 25 hits, Iowa - nine, which did not cause serious damage. Subsequently, the Americans examined the wrecks of the burnt and sunken Spanish cruisers (the surrendered Cristobal Colon was torn off the stones and sank) and counted 163 hits. Considering that out of 138 guns that the Americans had at their disposal, about 7 thousand shots were fired, in the end this gave 2, 3% of effective hits, which gives reason to consider the artillery training of American artillerymen insufficient.
Sunken "Cristobal Colon"
Liberty Island
The Battle of Santiago had a major impact on Spain's position. The colonial squadron in Manila Bay was destroyed a month before the events described; on June 20, the island of Guam surrendered. New American troops landed in Cuba and the Philippines. On August 20, a truce was concluded between Spain and the United States, and the Paris Peace was signed in December 1898. Spain renounced the rights to Cuba, transferred the Philippines and Puerto Rico to the Americans, and lost Guam for $ 20 million.
Cuba, having got rid of the colonial rule of Spain, came under complete dependence on the United States. The right to send troops to the island was stipulated in the American constitution and was canceled only in 1934. Almost all sectors of the Cuban economy were run uncontrollably by American companies, and Havana became a holiday center with a twinkle for the non-poor in the United States. The way to get rid of the tutelage of "top managers" and their local managers was long and difficult. It ended in January 1959, when a column of Shermans, clung to smiling bearded men, entered jubilant Havana.
