The eighteenth century was replete with not only the gold of the palaces of enlightened absolutism, where the singing of violins poured under the graceful pas of court minuets, and philosophers invited by the kings plunged indestructible truths into the dust, sitting by the fireplaces. Not far away, on the other side of the cast-iron fence, both massive and airy, the peasant sullenly walked behind the plow, dragging behind a thin horse, cursed the tax collectors of the townspeople, the habitués of taverns and taverns were having fun in a hangover frenzy, and little change was poured into the hats of street musicians. And still the war was a frequent visitor. History moved slowly: contradictions grew, and with them - the quality of gunpowder.
Russia was no exception in this system, organizing the world, and the circumstances did not allow living alone. The territory of the empire increased, and with it the number of its ill-wishers multiplied. While the country, located thousands of miles from the piers of London, Le Havre and Amsterdam, smelled of overseas spices, tossed and turned in the networks of internal turmoil and fought for its very existence, Europe had little to do until distant Muscovy, where one part of the population consisted of "wild Tatars", and the other - from bears.
The situation changed dramatically during the reign of Peter I, when the newborn empire showed its importance and proved to the skeptics its right to be in the “major league”. Russia aspired to the seas as a springboard for trade with Europe, and along the way it had to face Sweden and Turkey. And, of course, with the interests of those "enlightened" states that, to the best of their strength, contributed to these clashes. The result of the Northern War of 1700-1721. became a solid foundation of Russia on the coast of the Baltic Sea and the lowering of the status of Sweden as a military power, which could no longer exert its former influence on the situation in Europe. The issue of access to the Black Sea remained open for a long time, and its decision, for a number of political reasons, was constantly postponed until the reign of Catherine II.
Sweden, naturally, did not accept the downgrading of its status and throughout the 18th century sought to restore it, primarily trying to take revenge from Russia. At first, the Swedes ventured into such an enterprise during the reign of King Frederick I, and the war with Russia (1741–1743) was an attempt to revise the results of the Nystadt Peace Treaty. The conflict with the neighbor turned out to be unsuccessful, despite the palace coup in St. Petersburg and the coming to power of Elizabeth Petrovna. The Swedish king, too, was not noticed in excessive curiosity in the military sciences, since his role in the political life of the country was very insignificant. Spending time in heartfelt battles with the court ladies-in-waiting, Fredrik I did not pay attention to such an insignificant event as the war with Russia.
According to one of the conditions of the Peace of Abos, which ended the war of 1741-1743, the son of the Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, Adolf Fredrik, was elected the heir of the widely walking and at the same time childless Fredrik I, at the request of Russia, who in St. Petersburg was considered a figure more or less loyal to Russia …
It should be noted that the political life of the northern kingdom from about the 30s. The 18th century revolved around two factions formed in the Riksdag, the Swedish parliament. One of them, which consisted mainly of the high-born aristocracy, advocated a tougher foreign policy course aimed at restoring Sweden's influence in Europe, and had the unspoken name of the "party of hats." The Hats were considered an anti-Russian faction dreaming of revenge for losing the Northern War. The militant aristocracy was opposed by the "party of caps", which can be attributed to the opposition to the hard line. The composition of the "caps" was heterogeneous: officials, landowners, merchants and peasants prevailed here. This group sought good-neighborly relations with its powerful neighbor, thanks to which Sweden would benefit greatly from trade and economic interests. Period 1718-1772 known in Swedish history as the "era of freedom", when power was concentrated in the hands of the parliament, not the king. This state phenomenon arose as a result of the country's defeat in the Northern War. The initiator of this parliamentary government was the prominent Swedish statesman Arvid Bernhard Horn, who believes that the king's power should be controlled. The example of Charles XII galloping across Europe, absent from his homeland for years and carried away by adventures dangerous for its existence (taking, for example, on faith the fervent assurances of the European integration of one Little Russian hetman), made us think seriously and take a pragmatic look at the power of the monarchy.
Having formally ascended the throne in 1751, Adolf Fredrik found himself in the very center of the confrontation between parliamentary factions. Militant "hats" constantly sought to limit the already moderate power of the king. Even the upbringing of the heir, the future King Gustav III, was equated to a matter of state importance, and the father was forced to coordinate with the relevant parliamentarians the subtleties of his son's upbringing and education. For those cases when the king did not approve and did not sign government papers that did not suit him, the “hats” made a special seal with his signature. The Swedish king was a kind, gentle man, preferred not to conflict with parliamentarians, and, in the end, died from a blow caused by the absorption of a hearty dinner. The son of Adolf Fredrik, who became King Gustav III, felt that the country needed changes.
Neighbors, relatives and enemies
Swedish King Gustav III, initiator of the rematch
The future king, who will cross swords with the Russian Empire, was born in 1746. Like many monarchs of that period, the young man fell into a wave of enlightened absolutism. The sovereign now had to be not just the first feudal lord, landowner and commander (not everyone succeeded in the latter), but also know a lot about philosophical wisdom, throw aphorisms in the language of Voltaire and Montesquieu into the crowd of admiring courtiers, play music and write. The future king kept up with the times: he adored theaters and spoke brilliantly in French. The death of his father Adolphe Fredrik on March 1, 1771 found the heir in the box of the Paris opera house. He returned to Stockholm already by His Majesty Gustav III.
Having endured enough lectures and lectures from the caring representatives of the party of "hats" in his youth, the new king decided to put an end to parliamentary liberties. On August 19, troops loyal to Gustav surrounded the Riksdag, and at gunpoint, the latter obediently and, most importantly, quickly adopted a number of laws that significantly expand the king's powers, and the parliament itself could now gather only at the behest of the monarch. The "era of freedom" was over.
Sweden was not in a vacuum - the events in the country were closely followed, and above all in St. Petersburg. As a result of the next palace coup, with the direct support of the guards, Sophia Augusta Frederica of Anhalt-Zerbst, who became known to the world under the name of Catherine II, reigned on the throne. The wife of Peter III, removed from power, also belonged to the cohort of enlightened monarchs. A controversial and ambiguous figure, Empress Catherine stood out for her outstanding qualities among her contemporary monarchs. Having come to power in 1762, the Empress made the exit and consolidation of Russia in the Black Sea basin one of the most important directions of foreign policy. To fight the still strong Ottoman Empire, it was necessary to secure the western borders and maintain the status quo in relations with Sweden. Rzeczpospolita in the second half of the 18th century completely degraded as a state formation and was now not a subject, but an object of the politicians of Russia, Austria and Prussia. It was simply necessary to keep Sweden in the wake of loyalty to Russia and prevent revanchist views from developing.
Empress Catherine II the Great
Catherine II was a subtle politician and understood well the difference in situations: when it was necessary to hit with an ax, where a sharp knife was useful, and in what conditions an elegant purse was more necessary, in which it was convenient to toss gold circles into the right pocket. Simply put, considering the admirer of operas, plays and comedies of King Gustav III to be an eccentric and narrow-minded person, the Russian empress decided to strengthen Sweden's peacefulness with full-fledged imperial rubles. Investing part of the state budget in some improvement in the well-being of statesmen of neighboring countries in order to adjust the political course as necessary has been and remains a standard instrument of external state manipulation. Through the Russian ambassador to Stockholm, Count Andrei Kirillovich Razumovsky, feasible charitable assistance was provided mainly to gentlemen from the party of "caps" and some not hopeless "hats". Catherine II was well aware of what was happening in the entourage of the king, having branched out agents and simply well-wishers. Russia did not set the Swedes against any other country, Catherine did not need the Swedish grenadiers to disembark from the galleys on the quays of London or Dunkirk. It is important that they simply sit in the barracks in Stockholm and Gothenburg.
Petersburg had a reason to attend. Almost from the first years of his reign, Gustav III openly expressed a desire to repay Russia for the shame of the Nishtadt and Abo peace treaties. Already in 1775, the monarch publicly expressed the need to "attack St. Petersburg and force the empress to conclude peace with all his might." While such demarches did not go beyond loud slogans, they were treated like another cyclone in the head of the monarch, famous for his eccentricity. However, Gustav III soon began to put in order his navy and army. The revanchist plans of the king were warmly approved in countries such as England, France and, of course, Turkey. The Kuchuk-Kainardzhi treaty of 1774 significantly strengthened Russia's position in the Black Sea basin, although it did not completely solve the problem of conquering the entire Northern Black Sea region and Crimea. Paris and London invested significant sums of money in modernizing the Turkish armed forces, and in support of the war party in Stockholm loomed the tempting prospect of imposing a war on Russia on two fronts and distracting from Turkish affairs. Therefore, a financial trickle flowed to Sweden in the form of subsidies, which were primarily spent for military purposes. The activities of Count Razumovsky became more lively under these conditions, and soon the king himself drew attention to it, expressing his extreme irritation.
The growing anti-Russian position of Gustav III, in every possible way inspired by Western well-wishers and Turkey, did not prevent him from conducting a rather amiable correspondence with Catherine II, where the talkative king assured his "sister" (Gustav's father, Adolf Fredrik, was the brother of the Empress's mother) in his most sincere peaceful intentions. They even met twice: in 1777 and in 1783. At the last meeting, the Swedish king received from the Russian empress a modest gift in the amount of 200 thousand rubles. The sublime patron of theaters and the arts willingly took the money, and the degree of peacefulness in his letters increased sharply, but there is hardly any doubt that this amount was spent on fancy dress and updating the wardrobe of the Royal Opera artists. Axes pounded all over the country, harvesting the ship's timber. Sweden was preparing for war.
Preparing for the performance
In August 1787, the next and second Russian-Turkish war began in the reign of Catherine II. Turkey, backed by the help of the Western powers, decided to try its luck in military affairs. Accordingly, the amount of financial assistance from France and England to Gustav III expanded. In this situation, the Swedish king saw for himself a convenient opportunity to get even for previous defeats. As luck would have it, Gustav III was unusually confident in his own strength and tried on the hat of the great commander. The nuance was that the king could declare a victorious war (as well as not a victorious one) only with the approval of the Riksdag - Gustav III did not dare to completely eradicate parliamentarism. The exception was the situation if the country was attacked by an aggressor. Since the imposing role of an evil enemy with a bear grin in the play composed by the king was given to Russia, an excuse was required to force her to enter the stage first.
Commander of the Baltic Fleet Admiral S. K. Greig
Catherine II took a restrained position and for the time being ignored the rising tone of talk about a campaign to Petersburg through Finland. Not relying only on Razumovsky's financial combinations, Russia at one time also took care of an alliance with Denmark, which traditionally feared its belligerent neighbor. According to the treaty of alliance concluded in 1773, in the event of a war between Russia and Sweden, Denmark pledged to side with the first and reinforce its actions with a military contingent of 12 thousand soldiers, 6 battleships and 3 frigates.
Meanwhile, the military preparations of the Swedes continued. In the spring of 1788, Russia began to prepare the squadron of Admiral Greig for a campaign to the Mediterranean in order to repeat the successful experience of the Archipelago Expedition of the previous war. Sweden was notified of this in advance, and also received assurances that the ships being equipped were in no way intended against Sweden. But the king has already suffered. Caring people with a foreign accent whispered to Gustav that it would be highly desirable if the Russian fleet did not leave the Baltic. The depth and width of the golden stream that irrigated the Swedish economy directly depended on this.
By May 27, the squadron, intended for a campaign in the Mediterranean, concentrated on the Kronstadt roadstead. It consisted of 15 battleships, 6 frigates, 2 bombardment ships and 6 transports. Soon, on June 5, the vanguard of these forces, consisting of three stacked battleships, one frigate and three transports under the command of Vice Admiral Wilim Petrovich Fidezin (von Desin), left for Copenhagen. A curious incident occurred along the way. Fondazin's detachment along the route met with the entire Swedish fleet under the command of the king's brother, the Duke of Södermanland. War had not yet been declared, and the Swedish commander demanded a salute to the Swedish flag. Fondezine objected that under the treaty of 1743 no one was obliged to salute anyone, but since the duke is a relative of the empress, he could be personally greeted. The Russians fired 13 shots. The Swedes, who considered themselves already masters of the situation and the entire Baltic, answered with eight.
Karl Frederick von Breda. Portrait of King Charles XIII, in 1788 the former commander of the Swedish fleet and then still holding the title of Duke of Södermanland
It would seem that the most logical thing for the Swedes to wait for the departure of the entire squadron and, having achieved superiority in forces, to attack, however, the appearance of Russian ships in the Mediterranean did not suit Western well-wishers in any way. In the Swedish capital, artificially spread rumors spread that, they say, the Russian fleet was going to suddenly attack Karlskrona, the main naval base of Sweden. When this chatter and the accompanying anti-Russian rhetoric had already reached impressive proportions, the Russian Ambassador to Sweden, Count Razumovsky, addressed the Minister of Foreign Affairs with a message, which, on the one hand, demanded that the Swedes explain their behavior, and on the other, expressed hope for peaceful coexistence. two states. The fact is that the Swedish fleet was intensively armed and was in full combat readiness, and there was no particular doubt against whom these preparations were directed. Gustav III considered this generally peaceful note offensive and ordered the exile of the Russian ambassador from Stockholm.
On June 20, 1788, the Swedish fleet entered the Gulf of Finland. On June 21, without declaring war, the troops of King Gustav crossed the border and attacked the Russian outpost at the fortress of Neishlot. On June 27, not far from Revel, the frigates of the Baltic Fleet "Hector" and "Yaroslavets" were captured, which came too close to the Swedish ships. Soon Empress Catherine received an ultimatum, the demands of which made even foreign diplomats question the rationality of the Swedish king. The claims of Gustav III were notable for the scale of their plans: he demanded punishment of Ambassador Razumovsky for "espionage activities", the transfer of all lands in Finland that had ceded to Russia in 1721 and 1743, the whole of Karelia, and the complete disarmament of the Baltic Fleet. The most impressive was the demand of the Swedish king to return the Crimea to the Ottoman Empire. The ultimatum was so outrageous that Catherine II considered it beneath her dignity to answer it - the Swedish embassy was simply expelled from St. Petersburg with not quite a decent direction indication. Soon a manifesto was issued about the beginning of the war with Sweden, although formally hostilities were already underway. Going into the active army, Gustav III wrote that he was very proud to "avenge Turkey" and it is quite possible that his name would become famous not only in Europe, but also in Asia and Africa. Western benefactors breathed a sigh of relief upon learning about the beginning of the war, but what they thought about this in Africa remained a mystery forever.
Fleets of the parties
By 1788, the Swedish king had something to “avenge Turkey”. The Swedish fleet was fully operational and at the beginning of the war had 26 ships of the line, 14 frigates and several dozen ships of smaller classes. Sweden also had a large galley fleet, consisting of almost 150 rowing ships. The galley fleet was called the "skerry fleet" and was subordinate to the command of the army. In 1783, the Swedish fleet learned an improved naval charter, in which such an innovation as the bearing system appears. Through exercises involving yachts and longboats, naval officers were well acquainted with formation tactics and signaling systems. Each ship received new maps of the Baltic Sea, made in 1782. The morale of the personnel was high. The plan of the Swedish command was to concentrate ground forces in Finland in order to divert the attention of the Russians from St. Petersburg. In the meantime, the fleet was ordered to defeat the enemy in a general battle, to accept a 20,000-strong corps on galleys and transports in Helsingfors, and to carry out its unhindered landing near St. Petersburg, where the frightened Catherine would be ready to sign peace on any terms.
By the beginning of the war, the payroll of the Russian Baltic Fleet was 46 battleships with 8 under construction. However, the technical condition of many battleships left much to be desired. The three most powerful ships under the command of Fonduesin were sent to Copenhagen. In general, in Kronstadt there were about 30 combat-ready battleships, 15 frigates, 4 bombarding ships and a number of ships of lower ranks. The personnel did not have combat experience and were not sufficiently prepared for combat operations. The once numerous galley fleet was in such a deplorable state that by the beginning of the war, no more than 20 galleys were combat-ready. It was necessary to make up for lost time already in the course of hostilities.
The actions of the Swedes, of course, canceled the Russian squadron's march to the Mediterranean Sea, and the Baltic Fleet began to prepare for battle. The crews had to be replenished with seamen from cargo and auxiliary ships, there was not enough provisions and equipment. On June 26, when fighting had already begun in Finland, the commander of the fleet, Admiral Samuel Karlovich Greig, received the order of the empress to go to sea and seek a meeting with the enemy. On June 28, 1788, having finished preparations, the Baltic Fleet weighed anchor and sailed westward.
Hogland battle
Greig had 17 ships of the line and 7 frigates at his disposal. Of the battleships, the most powerful was the 100-cannon Rostislav, besides it there were eight 74-cannons and eight 66-cannons. The admiral divided the subordinate forces into three divisions. The vanguard was commanded by Martyn Petrovich Fidezin (brother of Vilim Petrovich Fidezin) - the flag on the 72-gun "Kir Ioann", the rear guard was headed by Rear-Admiral T. G. Kozlyaninov (74-gun "Vseslav"). The most powerful ships made up the corps de battalion, where Greig himself kept his flag on the Yaroslav.
After spending some time in the Gulf of Finland, the Swedish fleet entered Helsingfors, where it replenished supplies. On July 3, they left this harbor and went to sea. Duke Karl of Södermanland had 15 ships of the line, 5 large and eight small frigates under his command. The commander was holding the flag on the battleship Gustav III. The brother of the king was distinguished by the same ardent character as the king, therefore, an experienced admiral, Count Wrangel, was assigned to him as a "power limiter". The vanguard was commanded by Vice Admiral Wachmeister, the rearguard was commanded by Lindenstedt. The Swedes placed large 40-gun frigates in the battle line to prevent the Russians from engulfing themselves from the flanks.
Greig moved slowly due to insufficient wind strength. On July 5, he rounded the island of Gogland from the south, and on the morning of July 6, the opponents saw each other. The Swedes had 1,300 guns on the ships of the line. Russians - 1450. At the same time, Greig's personnel training, whose crews were well diluted with recruits, was lower than that of the enemy. The rapprochement of the fleets was slow, while the Swedes clearly held the line. At about 16 o'clock the Swedish fleet made a "all of a sudden" turn to port tack and lined up in the battle line. At a signal from Greig, the Russian fleet also made a turn to the port tack, while the vanguard of Fonduesin of 5 ships became the rearguard, broke formation and began to lag behind. The Russian line, descending on the enemy, stretched out, and relative order was observed in the vanguard of Kozlyaninov and most of the corps de battalion. Fidezine lagged behind, and Greig had to urge him on with signals.
At 5 o'clock, the lead ship of the Russian fleet and the flagship of the avant-garde, the 74-gun Vseslav, under the flag of Rear Admiral T. G. Kozlyaninov, found itself in two cables and, without waiting for the commander's signal, opened fire on the enemy. The fire was conducted along the entire line, with the most fierce battle taking place in the vanguard and center. However, only three Russian ships fought against the entire Swedish vanguard: Boleslav, Mecheslav and Vladislav. Six ships fired at a safe distance and provided no assistance. Dense gunpowder smoke interfered with both sides in orientation and transmission of signals, which were transmitted by means of boats. Despite the inexperience of the crews, the Russian fire was very strong, and an hour and a half later, at half past six in the evening, the flagship Gustav III, damaged by Rostislav, and then several other Swedish ships began to leave their places in the line with the help of boats and leave from the zone of destruction of Russian guns. However, at the end of the line, the Russian battleship Vladislav came under fire from five enemy ships at once - no support was provided.
At about 9 pm Karl Södermanlandsky again made a turn to the north, trying to increase the distance. The Russians repeated the Swedes' maneuver, with a number of Russian battleships being towed by boats. At this time, the flagship "Rostislav" was in close proximity to the vice-admiral ship "Prince Gustav" under the flag of Wachmeister and energetically attacked it. Unable to withstand numerous hits, at about 10 pm "Prince Gustav" lowered the flag. With the onset of darkness, the battle ended - the fleets dispersed. The Swedes went to Sveaborg under the protection of the fortress. Only at the beginning of 12 o'clock in the morning the boat that approached the Rostislav brought a report that, being carried to the center of the Swedish fleet, badly damaged and losing control, the Vladislav was forced to surrender. Of the 700 crew members, 257 were killed, 34 holes were counted in the hull. Both sides lost one ship each. The decline in personnel reached the Russians - 580 killed, 720 wounded and about 450 prisoners. The Swedes lost 130 people killed, 400 wounded and more than 500 prisoners.
Tactically, the battle of Hogland turned out to be a draw: the losses of the sides in terms of ships were comparable. Strategically, it was an undeniable victory for the Russians. The plans of the Swedish command were thwarted, as were all plans for an amphibious operation. Since the battle took place on the day of the Monk Sisoy, July 6, from then until 1905 a ship under the name "Sysoy the Great" was constantly in the Russian fleet. After the battle, as expected, an analysis of the situation took place, as a result of which Martyn Fidezin was removed from command for inept actions, and the commanders of the battleships Pamyat Eustathius, Fight and John the Theologian were put on trial and sentenced to death for failure to provide assistance to Vladislav … However, Catherine soon pardoned the would-be commanders, demoted them to sailors.
Results and consequences
Having sent the most damaged ships to Kronstadt, Greig made repairs on his own and on July 26, 1788 appeared in full view of Sveaborg, where, as a result of "victory" (Gustav III knew a lot about propaganda and declared the naval battle at Gogland his victory - there was even a salute in Helsingfors on this occasion) Duke Karl of Södermanland took refuge. There was fog at sea, and the appearance of the Russian squadron for the Swedes was sudden - their ships had to chop off the ropes and hastily leave under the protection of coastal batteries. At the same time, the 62-gun "Prince Gustav Adolf" ran aground and was captured. It was not possible to remove the trophy from the shallows, so it was burned in full view of the entire Swedish fleet.
During the blockade of Sveaborg, Admiral Greig fell seriously ill - an epidemic of typhoid fever raged in the fleet. The flagship Rostislav left the fleet and arrived at Revel on September 21. On October 15, Samuel Karlovich Greig died.
The war with Sweden continued for two more years, the hostilities took place mainly at sea, which makes it possible to characterize the Russian-Swedish war as a naval one. A number of major battles took place, in which the Russian fleet was successful. Only at the end of the conflict did the Swedes achieve a major victory in the second Battle of Rochensalm, defeating the rowing flotilla under the command of Nassau-Siegen.
The war ended with the signing of the Verela Peace Treaty, which maintained the status quo in the territorial possessions of both states. In the south, the war with Turkey continued, and it was profitable for Russia to free its hands in the Baltic as soon as possible. The failed conqueror of St. Petersburg, the patron saint of opera and theater, King Gustav III was mortally wounded during a masquerade ball at the Royal Swedish Opera on March 19, 1792 and died a few days later. So the aristocracy repaid him for limiting their power in parliament. Throughout his life, the king admired the theater and in it he eventually found his death.
Catherine II considered victory in the war with Turkey only a step towards the implementation of her plans, since the Bosporus and Dardanelles remained in the hands of the Ottomans. Soon the attention of all of Europe was drawn to France, plunging into the abyss of revolution, where the device promoted by Dr. Guillotin began its tireless work. The Russian empress publicly shed demonstrative tears about her "brother Louis", the Western ambassadors sighed sympathetically, and in the meantime, the plan of the landing expedition was almost completely ready, the purpose of which was to land in Istanbul and take control of the straits so necessary for Russia. While the Western partners were strenuously dragging each other by the wigs, nothing could prevent the empire from fulfilling the geopolitical task of reaching the southern seas. However, the death of Catherine stopped the implementation of these plans, and Russia was drawn into a long period of wars with France.
