210 years ago, on October 21, 1805, the Battle of Trafalgar took place - the decisive battle between the English fleet under the command of Vice Admiral Horatio Nelson and the Franco-Spanish fleet of Admiral Pierre Charles Villeneuve. The battle ended with the complete defeat of the Franco-Spanish fleet, which lost twenty-two ships, while the British fleet lost none.
The Battle of Trafalgar was part of the Third Coalition War and the most famous maritime confrontation of the 19th century. This naval battle had strategic implications. The decisive victory of the British fleet confirmed Britain's naval superiority. Anglo-French rivalry at sea ran like a red thread throughout the 18th century. The naval confrontation, which began with the battles of England with Spain, and England with Holland, and then England with France (with the support of Spain), ended in a convincing victory for the British. England won the status of "ruler of the seas" for a long time. Napoleon, despite convincing victories on land, had to postpone the plan of an amphibious operation in England.
At the same time, the assertions of some Western researchers that the Battle of Trafalgar was decisive in the defeat of the French Empire have no basis. The outcome of the confrontation with Napoleon was decided on land. And only Russian bayonets crushed Napoleon's empire. In the field of tactics, Admiral Nelson successfully applied the recommendations of the English military theorist J. Clerk and the combat experience of the Russian fleet, including Admiral FF Ushakov. Nelson decisively abandoned the dogmas of linear tactics that prevailed in the 18th century. and adhered to by his adversary. Previously, the Russian Admiral Ushakov won his victories in the same way.
The battle became tragic for the commanders of the fleets. Admiral Nelson, personifying the last successes of the British fleet, in this battle was mortally wounded by a musket bullet and died, having received before his death the report of the complete victory of England. French Admiral Pierre-Charles de Villeneuve was captured. Was in England as a prisoner of war until April 1806. He was released on parole that he would no longer fight against Britain. Completely demoralized due to the disruption of the expedition to England and the loss of the fleet, on April 22, 1806, he committed suicide (according to another version, he was stabbed to death). The brave Spanish Admiral Federico Gravina, who in this battle he lost his hand, shattered by grapeshot, could not recover from his wound and died on March 9, 1806.
French Admiral Pierre-Charles de Villeneuve
Background
Trafalgar became a landmark event that, together with Waterloo, ended the long Anglo-French conflict, which was called the "Second Hundred Years War". A "cold war" was going on between the two great powers, at times turning into a "hot war" - the wars of the Augsburg League for the Spanish and Austrian inheritance. Seven years old, for the independence of the British North American colonies. London and Paris competed in everything from trade and colonies to science and philosophy. During this period, Britain formulated the key principle of foreign policy - the fight against the strongest continental power, as having the greatest potential to harm British interests. As a result, by the end of the 18th century, France had lost most of its first colonial empire (the second was created already in the 19th century). French trade ceded to the British, the French fleet could no longer challenge the British.
A new war between England and France began after London dissolved the Peace of Amiens in May 1803. Napoleon began planning an invasion of England. England has put together a new anti-French coalition, the main striking force of which was Austria and Russia.
Confrontation at sea
By the beginning of a new war, in 1803, England's position at sea was, on the whole, excellent. During the previous war, British military power increased many times: over the eight years of the war, the British fleet increased from 135 ships of the line and 133 frigates to 202 and 277, respectively. At the same time, the French fleet was greatly weakened: the number of battleships and frigates of ships decreased from 80 and 66 to 39 and 35. After naval victories at Cape San Vicente, at Camperdown in 1797 and Aboukira in 1798, when the Spanish, Dutch and the French fleets, the Battle of Copenhagen in 1801, which ended with the destruction and capture of the Danish fleet, in Britain were confident of victory at sea. London was concerned only with the plan for the landing of an amphibious army in England. Given the virtual absence of full-fledged ground forces in England, and the excellent fighting qualities of the Napoleonic troops, such an operation undoubtedly led to a military catastrophe in Britain.
Therefore, the British command attached great importance to the blockade of the Franco-Spanish naval forces. The largest of the French squadrons were located in Brest (18 battleships and 6 frigates), Toulon (10 and 4, respectively), Rochefort (4 and 5), Ferrol (5 and 2). Each French port was blocked by superior British forces: 20 battleships and 5 frigates for Brest, 14 and 11 for Toulon, 5 and 1 for Rochefort, 7 and 2 for Ferrol. Additional British squadrons were deployed in and around the Channel - a total of 8 battleships and 18 frigates in both straits. The Dutch fleet was guarded by 9 British ships of the line and 7 frigates. Several frigates guarded the approaches to Ireland.
Thus, the British had a significant superiority in the naval forces. In addition, they occupied an advantageous position, being relatively close to their ports and bases, all their communications were free. It is also worth noting that the French fleet during this period greatly degraded and the previous balance between the English and French fleets, which used to cost each other, disappeared. France, due to internal unrest, severely launched its fleet. Emigration deprived the French fleet of most of the old officers, the fleet was poorly organized, supplied on a leftover basis (in the first place was the army, which was solving the problem of France's survival). The ships prepared for battle hastily, the crews were weak, heterogeneous, recruited from everywhere to replace those who had dropped out.
As a result, the French, in order to transfer an amphibious army across the English Channel, needed to gather their strongest squadrons together, each time avoiding a dangerous battle with superior British blocking squadrons, bring them to the Channel and wait there for a favorable moment for throwing into England. The task of the British was simpler: to maintain the blockade, if possible, destroy enemy ships. However, the factor of weather conditions had to be taken into account. Sailing ships depended on the wind, and the weather could prevent the French from leaving the harbor and vice versa, allow the blocked squadron to slip out, for example, from Brest, while the British ships could remain in a calm zone.
Plans of the French command. Actions of the French fleet
The French command had to solve a difficult task. It was originally planned that the Toulon squadron, taking advantage of the favorable weather, would break the blockade and break away from the British squadron under the command of Nelson, which was based on the La Maddalena Islands in the Bonifacio Strait between Sardinia and Corsica. Then the Toulon squadron was supposed to break through Gibraltar and follow the situation to Ferrol (a naval base and port on the northern coast of Spain), or better to Rochefort (a French port on the Atlantic coast). The squadron in Brest was supposed to be active in order to distract the British. The French squadron, formed from forces based in Toulon and Rochefort, was supposed to move north, but not through the Canal, but around Ireland, demonstrating the intention to land troops on this island and raise an uprising of the local population oppressed by the British. Only then, without entering the Irish Sea, the French fleet had to go around England itself and reach Boulogne from the north. Here the French planned to break through the blockade of the Dutch fleet, and will be further strengthened by the Dutch ships.
Thus, the French were going to assemble a strong fleet that would be stronger than the British squadron in the English Channel. The British, according to the calculations of the French, did not have time to make up the united fleet, and separate squadrons and detachments of the united Franco-Dutch fleet had to be defeated. This made it possible to create a local superiority in forces and make the landing of amphibious forces on the coast of England.
But in 1804, the French could not begin to implement this complex and multi-stage plan, in which a lot depended on the natural elements and luck, the skills of the French captains. On August 19, 1804, the outstanding French admiral Louis Rene Latouche-Treville, who was highly esteemed by Napoleon, died in Toulon. Bonaparte greatly appreciated him for his indomitable military spirit, ardent character and hatred of the British. When Napoleon embarked on his grandiose plan of invasion of England, he gave Latouche-Treville the main role and appointed commander of the Toulon squadron. Latouche-Treville set to work with great energy and achieved good results in preparing the squadron for the purposes of the expedition and in the fight against Nelson who was blocking it. His death caused enormous damage to this case. France was no longer able to field such a talented and decisive admiral. While Napoleon was choosing a successor, autumn came, and at this time it was extremely dangerous to operate in the northern seas.
French Admiral Louis Rene Latouche-Treville
But in 1805, work in the admiralty of the French ports began to boil again. During this period, the plans of the emperor underwent rather serious changes, now more successful misinformation of the enemy came to the fore in order to divert his attention from the straits and, at the same time, strengthen positions in the colonies. In two letters to the Minister of the Sea, Decres dated September 29, 1804, Napoleon speaks of four expeditions: 1) the first was to strengthen the position of the French West Indian island colonies - Martinique and Guadeloupe, to capture some of the Caribbean islands; 2) the second is to capture Dutch Suriname; 3) third - to capture the island of St. Helena in the Atlantic Ocean west of Africa and make it a base for attacks on British possessions in Africa and Asia, to disrupt the enemy's trade; 4) the fourth was to be the result of the interaction of the Rochefort squadron, sent to the aid of Martinique, and the Toulon squadron, sent to conquer Suriname. The Toulon squadron was supposed to lift the blockade from Ferrol on the way back, attach the ships located there and dock at Rochefort, creating an opportunity to lift the blockade from Brest and strike at Ireland.
In 1805, France increased its naval power. On January 4, 1805, a Franco-Spanish treaty was concluded, according to which Spain put at least 25 battleships at the disposal of the French command in Cartagena, Cadiz and Ferrol. The Spanish fleet was to act in conjunction with the French squadrons in order to defeat the British fleet in the English Channel.
But the French could not realize these grandiose plans. In January 1805Villeneuve's squadron left Toulon, but because of a strong storm it returned back. On January 25, Missiesi's squadron departed from Rochefort. The French were able to reach the West Indies and ravaged the British possessions there, but returned back, since the Toulon squadron could not come to help. The Brest squadron of Admiral Gantom was unable to overcome the British blocking forces, namely, its connection with the Toulon squadron was given the greatest importance in the new plans of Napoleon.
At the end of March 1805, Villeneuve's squadron of eleven ships of the line, six frigates and two sloops left Toulon again. The French were able to avoid collision with the squadron of Admiral Nelson and successfully passed the Strait of Gibraltar. Villeneuve's ships linked up with a squadron of six Spanish ships of the line under the command of Admiral Gravina. The combined Franco-Spanish fleet sailed for the West Indies, reaching Martinique on 12 May. Nelson tried to catch up with them, but was delayed in the Mediterranean by bad weather and was unable to pass through the strait until May 7, 1805. The English fleet of ten ships of the line reached Antigua only on 4 June.
For about a month, Villeneuve's fleet strengthened the French positions on the islands of the Caribbean Sea, waiting for the squadron from Brest. Villeneuve was ordered to remain in Martinique until 22 June, awaiting Admiral Antoine Gantoma's fleet from Brest. However, the Brest squadron failed to break through the British blockade and never appeared. On June 7, Villeneuve learned from a captured English merchant ship that Nelson's fleet had arrived in Antigua, and on June 11, deciding not to wait for Gantom, he went back to Europe. Nelson again began to chase, but headed for Cadiz, believing that the enemy was heading for the Mediterranean. And Villeneuve went to Ferrol. The Toulon squadron, returning from the Caribbean, was supposed to unblock the Franco-Spanish squadrons in Ferrol, Rochefort and Brest and then, with combined forces, solve the main task in the English Channel - by attacking head-on or bypassing the British Isles from the rear.
The French hoped that the British would be distracted by the Caribbean theater and not have time to react to the actions of Villeneuve's fleet. However, the British learned in time about the beginning of the return crossing of Villeneuve. On June 19, an English brig sent by Nelson to Britain to notify the Admiralty of the return of the Franco-Spanish fleet to Europe noticed an enemy fleet 900 miles northeast of Antigua, which Nelson had been vainly catching for three months. At the course of Villeneuve, the British realized that the French did not plan to go to the Mediterranean. Captain Bettsworth immediately realized the importance of this incident and instead of returning to Nelson's squadron, which he might not have met, he continued on his way to Britain. The English ship reached Plymouth on 9 July and the captain broke the news to the Lord of the Admiralty.
The Admiralty ordered Cornwallis to lift the blockade at Rochefort by sending five of its ships to Admiral Robert Calder, who oversaw Ferrol with ten ships. Caldera was ordered to cruise a hundred miles west of Finisterre to meet Villeneuve and prevent him from joining the Ferrol squadron. On July 15, on the Ferrol parallel, 5 ships of Rear Admiral Sterling joined 10 ships of Vice Admiral Calder. Meanwhile, Villeneuve's fleet, delayed by the northeasterly winds, did not reach the Finisterre area until 22 July.
On July 22, the battle took place at Cape Finisterre. Villeneuve with 20 ships of the line was attacked by the forces of the English blocking squadron Caldera with 15 ships. With such an inequality of forces, the British were ready to seize two Spanish ships. True, one of the British ships was also badly damaged. In addition, Calder had to take into account the likelihood of a blow to himself in the rear of the Ferrol and, possibly, Rochefort squadrons of the enemy. As a result, the next day, the opponents did not continue to fight. The battle ended with an uncertain result, both admirals, and Villeneuve and Calder, declared their victory.
Calder was later removed from command and brought to court-martial. The trial took place in December 1805. The British admiral was exempted from the charge of cowardice or negligence, nevertheless, he was found not to have done everything that depended on him to resume the battle and to capture or destroy enemy ships. His behavior was found to be extremely condemnable, and he was sentenced to a severe reprimand. Calder never again served at sea, although he was promoted to admiral and awarded the Order of the Bath.
The Battle of Cape Finisterre July 22, 1805, William Anderson
British Admiral Robert Calder
Villeneuve took the ships to Vigo to repair the damage. On 31 July, taking advantage of the storm that drove back the blocking squadron of Caldera and leaving three of his worst affected ships in Vigo, he sailed to Ferrol with fifteen ships. As a result, there were 29 ships of the line in Ferrol (by this time the Ferrol squadron already numbered 14 ships of the line). Calder was forced to retreat and join Cornwallis' squadron. On August 15, Nelson approached the combined forces of Cornwallis and Calder near Brest, with his arrival the number of the British fleet reached 34-35 ships of the line.
Villeneuve, in his own words, “having no confidence in the state of armament of my ships, as well as in their speed and dexterity of maneuvering, knowing that the enemy forces were joining and that they knew all my actions from the time I arrived at the Spanish coast … lost hope of being able to accomplish the great mission for which my fleet was intended. As a result, the French admiral took the fleet to Cadiz.
Upon learning of the withdrawal of the French fleet, Cornwallis committed what Napoleon called "an obvious strategic mistake" - he sent a squadron of Calder, reinforced to 18 ships to Ferrol, thus weakening the British fleet in a vital sector and giving the enemy superiority in forces both at Brest and under Ferrol. If there were a more decisive naval commander in Villeneuve's place, he could impose a battle on a much weaker British fleet and, perhaps, despite the qualitative superiority of the enemy's crews, achieve victory due to numerical superiority. Having defeated the Caldera squadron, Villeneuve could already threaten the Cornwallis squadron from the rear, also having an advantage in forces.
However, Villeneuve did not know about this and did not seek happiness in battle, like more decisive naval commanders. On August 20, the Franco-Spanish fleet dropped anchor at Cadiz. As a result, the forces of the allies increased to 35 ships of the line. This fleet, despite Napoleon's demands to go to Brest, remained in Cadiz, allowing the British to renew the blockade. Calder, finding no enemy in Ferrol, followed to Cadiz and there joined Collingwood's blocking squadron. The forces of the British blocking squadron increased to 26 ships. Later, this squadron was brought up to 33 ships of the line, several of which regularly departed for Gibraltar - for fresh water and other supplies. Thus, the Franco-Spanish fleet retained some numerical advantage. Nelson led the combined squadron on September 28, 1805.
