Guerrilla tactics allowed the Boers to defeat the British, who fought according to the old, already obsolete military canons
The Boer War was the first conflict of a new type. It was there that for the first time smokeless powder, shrapnel, machine guns, khaki uniforms and armored trains were massively used. Together with the blockhouses, barbed wire is also included in the circulation, X-rays are used to find bullets and shrapnel from wounded soldiers. Special sniper units are being created, and the Boer tactics itself - fighting in small mobile units - will later become the basis for the formation of special forces groups.
In this war, the young correspondent Winston Churchill, the First Lord of the Admiralty during the First World War, will be captured and will make a daring escape. The future chairman of the State Duma, Alexander Guchkov, together with other foreign volunteers, will fight in the ranks of the Boers, and the young lawyer Mahatma Gandhi will lead the Indian medical detachment and receive a gold star from the British for bravery. The war itself, exactly 100 years before the NATO military operation in Yugoslavia, will become one of the first conflicts motivated by the protection of "human rights and freedoms" and the protection of "the values of the civilized community."
Background to the conflict
The Dutch East India Company imported colonists from the Netherlands to develop and manage their lands in southern Africa. After the Napoleonic wars, these territories finally passed to Great Britain, which deprives the descendants of the Dutch and French colonists, who later formed the Boer people, of self-government, the opportunity to receive education in their native language and imposes their ideological principles on them.
In protest, many Boers leave the fertile lands of the Cape Colony. Moving north, they make a great trek, or great migration, as a result of which, not without conflicts, they occupy the territory of local tribes and found several states. However, all this is happening under the watchful eye of the "big British brother". In 1867, the world's largest diamond deposit was discovered on the border of the Orange Republic and the Cape Colony. Later, the De Beers company would appear here - the diamond empire of the British colonial romantic and capitalist Cecil John Rhodes (Rhodesia was named after him), who in the 1890s took over as Prime Minister of the Cape Colony and was one of the supporters of the "hawkish policy" in relations with the Boer republics. Cecile Rhodes sought to expand the network of British possessions in Africa "from Cairo to Cape Town", nurturing the idea of building a trans-African railway, and the independent Boer states thwarted these plans by the very fact of their existence.
Cecil John Rhodes and his partner Alfred Beith. 1901 year. Photo: Imperial War Museums
As a result of the first war between the Boers and England in 1880-1881, agreements are concluded that contain a number of confusing legal rules on British suzerainty over the Transvaal - in particular, these agreements included a clause on the mandatory approval by the Queen of England of all treaties concluded by the government of the Transvaal with other states or nations.
However, the main problems begin in the late 1880s and they were associated with the discovery of huge deposits of gold on the territory of the Boer states. Its production is rather difficult, as it requires special tools, skills and investments, therefore the Boers, mainly engaged in grazing livestock, were not able to do this. Tens of thousands of Oitlander, pioneers of British expansion, arrive in the country. In a matter of years, entire cities inhabited by foreigners appeared in the Boer colonies. Begins a period of internal tension between the "come in large numbers" and "local".
Active mining increases the bureaucracy and budget expenditures. The government of the President of the Transvaal Paul Kruger, in order to replenish the treasury, is going to issue concessions to foreign companies and entrepreneurs. Mindful of the British threat, they tried to give out concessions to anyone, but not the British. Then the British colonial authorities in South Africa, provoked by the out-of-business businessmen, recall the Queen's right to the suzerainty of the Transvaal and demand that civil rights be granted to the British living in the Transvaal. Of course, the Boers do not want to give voting rights to the Oitlander, rightly fearing for the future of their states, since the latter are quite openly acting as the conductors of British policy. So, during Paul Kruger's arrival in Johannesburg, a crowd of Outlander meeting him sang the Great Britain anthem God save the Queen and defiantly tore off the Transvaal flag.
This is not to say that the Boers did not try to incorporate the Oitlander into their society. Gradually, reforms were carried out that allowed labor migrants to resolve state issues, in particular, a second chamber of parliament (lower folksraad) of the Transvaal was created, where representatives of naturalized Oitlander could be elected, while the first chamber was formed only from native citizens of the republic. However, the constant intrigues of the Oitlander and their influential patrons like Cecil Rhodes did not contribute to the onset of detente.
President of the Transvaal Paul Kruger (Stefanus Johannes Paulus Kruger). Around 1895. Photo: Leo Weinthal / Getty Images / fotobank.ru
The latest boiling point was the incident that later became known as the Jameson raid - the invasion of Johannesburg by a detachment of Rhodesian and Bechuanaland police officers organized by Rhodes in order to raise the Outlander rebellion against the Kruger government. Before the invasion, mass protests were organized against the Boer government, during which a list of claims was initiated in an ultimatum. However, there was no support for the rebels from the population of Johannesburg. Rightly fearing the Boer army and seeing the solution to their problems in the war to be waged by the government of "Her Majesty", the settlers did not want to risk their lives. The mutiny was suppressed, and his leader, Dr. Jameson, was arrested.
It becomes obvious to the parties that only a big war can solve their contradictions. The British are launching a propaganda campaign about the allegedly unprecedented pressure on British citizens who are deprived of fundamental human and civil rights. At the same time, the British military contingent is building up on the border of the Boer colonies. The government of the Transvaal does not stand aside and begins purchasing modern weapons, building defensive structures, signing a military alliance with the fraternal Orange Republic.
It is necessary to say a few words about the Boer militia. Contrary to the military doctrines prevailing at that time, the Boer army was not divided into corps, brigades or companies. The Boer army was not at all familiar with military doctrine and military science. There were squads of commandos that could consist of a dozen or a thousand people. The Boer commandos did not recognize any military discipline, they even refused to be called soldiers, seeing this as an insult to their dignity, since the soldiers, in their opinion, are fighting for money, and they are citizens (burghers) who only perform their duties to protect the country …
Did not have Boer commandos and military uniforms; with the exception of the gunners and a few detachments of urban Boer, the burghers fought in the same clothes that they wore in peacetime. The democratic spirit of the Boers permeated all of society, and the army was no exception. Everything was decided by voting: from the election of officers to the adoption of a military plan for the upcoming campaign, and each soldier had the right to vote on an equal basis with an officer or general. Boer generals did not differ much from ordinary fighters, neither one nor the other had military education, so they often changed places: a fighter could become a general, and a general could easily be demoted to an ordinary fighter.
In battle, the burgher did not follow the officer, did not carry out his orders, but acted in accordance with the situation and at his own discretion. Therefore, the death of an officer did not change anything, the burgher was his own officer, and if necessary, then a general. The role of the officers was simple - to coordinate the actions of the burghers and help them with advice, but no more. In a traditional army, a soldier is used to obeying an officer and acting only if there is an appropriate order, thus, the death of the latter deprived the unit of control and fettered the fighters.
It was this anarchist spirit that was the cause of the victories and defeats of the Boer army.
War
After the failure of the Jameson raid, the parties turned to military preparations, the British began to concentrate troops on the border with the Boer republics, troops from all British colonies were pulled together to South Africa. The President of the Transvaal Paul Kruger sent an ultimatum, demanding within 48 hours to stop military preparations against the Boer republics, and to settle all disputes between the countries with the help of an arbitration court. The British rejected the ultimatum and on October 11, 1899, units of the Boer militia crossed the border of the British provinces of Natal and the Cape Colony. The war has begun.
The lack of clear campaign plans, squabbles between the Boer generals, as well as the protracted siege of some key cities, in particular Kimberley, the city in which Cecile Rhodes himself took refuge, and Mafekinga, whose defense was led by the founder of the scout movement, Colonel Baden-Powell, bound the main forces of the Boers. and they were unable to develop a further offensive. More precisely, they simply did not know what to do. The historical chance to occupy the Cape Colony and incite local Boers against the British was irretrievably lost, and the initiative naturally passed to the British, who significantly increased and strengthened their contingent in the region.
Already the first weeks of the war show the relative backwardness of the British army and its inability to effectively fight the Boer commandos, using technically more advanced weapons, fighting without uniforms at all, in earthy suits that blend into the surrounding terrain. The very bright red British military uniform, which helped to instantly determine who was next to you (friend or foe) in the thick of battle, after revolutionary improvements in firearms that improved accuracy and range, made the soldier an excellent target for an enemy sniper. In addition, thanks to improvements in shooting accuracy, the maneuverability of troops (shot and retreated) and the distance of aimed fire at enemy soldiers are increased. The columns, in which the soldiers of all European armies were traditionally lined up, no longer fulfilled their original functions. Rifle chains are replacing the columns, allowing them to fire more effectively at the enemy, which also significantly reduces their own losses.
John Denton Pinkston French, 1st Earl of Ypres, Viscount of Ypres and Highlake. Around 1915. Photo: British Library
The khaki military uniform was first introduced (as an experiment) for individual units of the British colonial forces in India in the second half of the 19th century. As always, the main opponents of the transition to a new uniform were the conservative British military, who did not want to change the existing uniform, but the losses from the use of the classic uniform spoke for themselves and the military conceded. Great Britain abandoned the bright red uniform for good. The new uniforms of the British army have become iconic for the military all over the world up to the present; so, the classic English military uniform began to be called French, after the British General John French, one of the participants in the war in South Africa. During the First World War, French will lead the British Expeditionary Forces in France.
Increasing the qualitative component, the British did not forget about the quantitative one. By the end of 1899, the total number of British troops in the region reached 120,000, then, steadily increasing towards the end of the war, reaching 450,000. As for the Boer militia, during the entire war its number could hardly exceed 60 thousand fighters.
Gradually, the British drive back the commandos from the Cape colony and Natal, transferring the war to the lands of the Orange Republic and the Transvaal, the Boers lose all large cities - a partisan war begins.
Volunteers
Speaking of the Boer War, it is impossible not to mention the foreign volunteers. In literature (especially British), the participation of foreigners in the Boer War is markedly exaggerated. Despite the fact that some individual volunteers provided truly invaluable assistance to the Boer troops, in general they did not leave a noticeable mark. Moreover, sometimes they only interfered with the Boer command, trying to teach the Boers the rules of war, while the latter considered their tactics and strategy to be the most effective in the given conditions and did not listen to the words of visiting experts.
The first such detachment was the German Legion, which was almost completely defeated in the battle of Elandslaagte. After this defeat, the Boers did not allow the creation of national volunteer detachments for a long time, and only the deterioration of the situation on the fronts changed their position. As a result, detachments were formed from American, French, Irish, German, Dutch volunteers.
Russian volunteers, many of whom were residents of Johannesburg, fought as part of the Boer commandos. At one time, the Russian detachment under the command of Captain Ganetsky also operated, but the detachment was Russian only in name. Of the approximately 30 people who fought in the detachment, the Russians were less than a third.
In addition to the Russian Johannesburgers, there were also volunteers who came directly from Russia, whose society supported the Boers. Lieutenant Colonel Yevgeny Maksimov distinguished himself most of all, who, thanks to his merits, rose to the rank of "combat general", and during the battles in the Orange Republic he even became the deputy commander of all foreign volunteers - Villebois Morel. Subsequently, the "combat general" Maksimov will be seriously wounded and evacuated to Russia, he will meet his death in 1904 already during the Russo-Japanese war.
It is also worth noting the Italian volunteers of Captain Ricciardi, who, however, were perceived by the Boers more as a plundering gang than a combat detachment. Captain Riciardi himself became known for the fact that, conducting a search of the captured Winston Churchill, he found a bullet "dum-dum" prohibited by the Hague Convention. It was during the Boer War that Winston Churchill became widely known to the British public, thanks to his capture and escape. Later, at the age of 26, he will be elected to the British Parliament. By the way, the British will continue to use dum-dum bullets, despite their official ban at the 1899 Hague Peace Conference.
Winston Churchill on horseback while working as a journalist in South Africa. 1896 Photo: Popperfoto / Getty Images / fotobank.ru
Omitting numerous robberies and robberies committed by this formation, it is necessary to note the significant contribution of Italians in the implementation of the sabotage war. They greatly helped the Boers, covering their retreat by blowing up bridges and attacking British units to distract the latter's attention.
Concentration camps for guerrillas
By the fall of 1900, after the defeat of the main units of the Boer militia and the transfer of the war to the Boer republics, the war entered the partisan phase, which would last two years. The Boer partisan raids inflicted significant losses on the British. Tactical superiority due to good knowledge of the terrain and better individual training of fighters remained with the Boers until the end of the war, but this could not compensate for the overwhelming superiority of the British in men and weapons. In addition, the British used a lot of know-how, including the infamous concentration camps.
They drove the civilian population, whose farms were burned by the British, and livestock and crops were destroyed. Ironically, these camps were called refugee camps - refugee camps. Then they began to send those families who helped the Boer resistance with food, medicine, etc. In total, about 200 thousand people were gathered in the concentration camps - about 120 thousand Boers and 80 thousand black Africans, for whom separate camps were created.
In all camps, without exception, unsanitary conditions reigned, food was supplied to prisoners irregularly, about a quarter of the inhabitants of these camps died, the overwhelming majority of them were women and children. The British sent men to prison in other colonies: to India, to Ceylon, etc.
Another element of counter-guerrilla warfare was the widespread use of blockhouses. The Boers, using classic guerrilla tactics, made deep raids behind enemy lines, destroyed communications, carried out sabotage, attacked garrisons, destroyed small detachments of the British and left with impunity.
To counteract such activity, it was decided to cover the territory of the Boer states with a whole network of blockhouses. A blockhouse is a small fortified post used to cover the most important directions or objects.
Boer general Christian Devet described this innovation in the following way: “Many of them were built of stone, usually had a round shape, sometimes quadrangular and even multifaceted. Shooting holes were made in the walls at a distance of six feet from each other and four feet from the ground. The roof was iron."
In total, about eight thousand blockhouses were built. The British began using telephone communications at the front, and many blockhouses were provided with telephones in case of commando attacks. When the telephone wires were cut, the blockhouse staff reported the attack with a signal flare.
The use of armored trains played a role in the victory over the Boer partisans, who were actively attacking British communications. These "blockhouses on wheels" consisted of two types of wagons - open without roofs and with roofs. They also used conventional wagons with sides, which were made of steel sheets with embrasures.
Shelters for locomotives were made of two types - either from steel ropes or from steel sheets. Usually an armored train consisted of three to four carriages. The conning tower of the commander of the armored train was in the locomotive's tender. For camouflage, such a train was painted in the color of the terrain. It was very important to provide an inspection of the terrain from an armored train. For this, special observation towers or even balloons were used. The balloon was attached to the train with a cable that was wound around the winch shaft.
British Army armored train. Between 1899 and 1902. South Africa. Photo: Imperial War Museums
Finale and results of the war
Realizing that the map was no longer just a defeat in a war, but the death of an entire people, the Boer field commanders were forced to conclude a peace treaty on May 31, 1902. According to him, the Boer republics became part of the British Empire, receiving in return the right to wide self-government and three million pounds sterling in compensation for the farms burned by the British during the war.
The magic of the date of May 31 will more than once affect the Anglo-Boer relations: on May 31, 1910, the Transvaal and Orange unite with the Cape Colony and Natal in the British dominion of the Union of South Africa (SAS), and on May 31, 1961 SAS becomes a completely independent state - South -African Republic.
None of the British generals and military analysts suspected that the war would last so long and take away so many lives of British soldiers (about 22 thousand people - versus eight thousand killed by the Boers), because the enemy of the British Empire was "a bunch of ignorant farmers", as it was announced by the British propaganda. The most interesting thing is that it was precisely the lack of professional military training and a basic understanding of the foundations of military tactics and strategy that allowed the Boers to defeat the British, who fought according to the old, already obsolete military canons.
However, the lack of a strategic plan for the conduct of the war did not allow the Boer militia to achieve victory, although the time for the start of hostilities was very well chosen and the British forces in the region were not enough to repel the attack. The Boers, lacking discipline, the proper level of organization and clear plans for a military campaign, were not able to take advantage of the fruits of their early victories, but only delayed the war to the advantage of the British side, which managed to concentrate the required number of troops and achieve both qualitative and numerical advantages over the enemy.
The war in Africa, along with the subsequent Moroccan crisis of 1905 and 1911 and the Bosnian crisis of 1908, had every chance of becoming a world war, as it once again exposed the contradictions between the great powers. The Boers and their unequal struggle aroused sympathy not only in the countries-competitors of Great Britain, such as Germany, the USA or Russia, but also in the most foggy Albion. Thanks to the Englishwoman Emily Hobhouse in the UK, they learned about the concentration camps and the cruel treatment of the civilian population in South Africa, the country's authority was seriously undermined.
In 1901, a little before the end of the war, in South Africa, the legendary Queen Victoria dies, who ruled the country for 63 years, and with it the relatively prosperous Victorian era. The time of great wars and upheavals is coming.
