Don Pedro's shield was pierced by a spear, It came out, but it did not penetrate into the flesh, Its shaft was broken in two places.
Bermudez did not swing, did not fall off the saddle, He retaliated with a blow for the blow that he took.
The spear fell under a protective thorn, Halfway into the shield at once, In the triple chain mail, two rows have struck, And in the third it got stuck, close to the heart, That was the only reason why Fernando survived.
Shirt, camisole and steel rings
They pressed into the meat into his palm …
(Song about Side. Translation by Y. Korneev.)
One of Spain's most serious problems in the face of the Muslim threat was feudal fragmentation. She also brought a lot of problems in other lands. But here in Spain, half of which belonged to Christians and the other to Muslims, it was of particular importance. By 1030, the position of Christian Spain was as follows: it consisted of two kingdoms, León and Navarre, and also two counties, Barcelona and Castile. The territories that later became the Kingdom of Portugal and Aragon were either part of the former, or still belonged to Muslims.
Monument to Force Compador by Anna Hattington in Buenos Aires.
The Kingdom of Castile and León became the third and final political unification of León and Castile in 1230. And it could have happened earlier, especially since both kingdoms have already united twice, but … each time they passed to the sons of the deceased monarch! So, from 1037 to 1065 they were ruled by Ferdinand I of León, who divided his possessions between his sons. Under King Alfonso VII, they were united again. But … in 1157, Alfonso VII died, and again the kingdom fell apart, divided between his sons: Ferdinand II got Leon, and Sancho III got Castile. So the state, striving for unification, because of feudal prejudices and nepotism, each time again found itself divided, and this happened in the face of a constant threat from the Moors!
Christian (left) and Arab warriors in Spain, XII century. Rice. Angus McBride
As a result, the Reconquista of the Islamic territory proceeded very slowly, strengthening only periodically. Only after the battle that took place on July 16, 1212 between the combined forces of Castile, Aragon, Navarra and Portugal and the army of the Spanish Moors of the Almohad dynasty at Las Navas de Tolosa, which the Christians won, the situation changed in their favor completely. Over the next fifty years, the Muslims lost everything except the Emirate of Granada. Nevertheless, for more than two centuries, the Castilians were primarily concerned with sorting out relations with neighboring Christian states within Iberia, as well as participating in the Anglo-French Hundred Years War. It is interesting to note that in the battle of Las Navas de Tolosa, crusaders, participants in the crusade announced by the Pope, and who arrived in Spain from different European countries, were supposed to participate. But they literally on the eve of the battle left the camp of the Spaniards, according to one version "because of the heat", according to the other - "possessed by the devil and envy." Simply put, the war on the peninsula went on for so long precisely because the expulsion of the Moors was by no means its primary task. In fact, it was an ordinary feudal war, that is, the seizure of land and production in a somewhat aggravated version due to its national and religious components.
A sword in a sheath, a dagger and a helmet from Iran of the era of the Arab conquest of the 7th century. Length 100.3 cm (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York)
However, it is only a stretch to talk about the Arab conquest of Spain as such. The Arabs themselves represented only the elite of the conquerors, and so, in general, all the peoples of Africa were represented there, as well as the local population, who obeyed the conquerors and also supplied them with soldiers in the future.
Spanish Knights 1197 Illustration from the Navarre Illustrated Bible, Pamplona, Spain. (Library of Amiens Metropol)
As for military affairs, the Castilian Reconquista had a number of interesting features that distinguished it from what was happening at the same time on the lands of the same France. It all started with the growing role of heavily armed cavalry, which began in the 9th century. However, light cavalry continued to be preserved here in an amount absolutely inconceivable in the same Northern France. Of course, mail armor of a typical Western European form was also used here, but it was used only by a minority of horsemen. There is also the possibility that some of the Castilian lightly armed horsemen were archers and could shoot from a bow from a horse. The city militias also made up a significant part of the armies of the Spanish kingdoms, and their number included not only infantry, but also cavalry.
El Cid (Cid Compador) and his warriors 1050-1075 Rice. Angus McBride.
The next stage in the military development of military Castile eliminated all these archaic vestiges. It is characterized by the adoption of French-style weapons, armor, and fighting techniques. Already in the XIII century, the armor of the Spanish and French knights became almost indistinguishable. Horses are also covered with blankets, riders wear surcoats, and their coats of arms are depicted on shields and even on helmets. It should be emphasized here that in such weapons the soldiers were very hot. Therefore, the Spanish commanders, to a greater extent than the commanders of England and France, had to pay attention to the time of their military actions and not arrange them in the most intense heat.
Spanish knights on horseback in blankets. Pamplona Illustrated Bible and Lives of the Saints, 1200 (University Library of Augsburg)
It is interesting that the seals of that time have come down to us, on which there are Catalan counts in striped surcoats, with striped shields, and their horses are dressed in striped blankets. That is, this symbol is very old and the "passport" of the Catalan nobility became a very long time ago.
Spanish crusader battles the Moor, 1200-1300, Barcelona, Spain. (Manuscript from the Library de San Lorenzo de Escori)
Armored infantry and the widespread use of the crossbow were another local feature. If in the same France the infantry, as such, was a servant of the seigneur, and even perhaps mercenaries, then in Spain, where the townspeople constantly had to repel the raids of the Moors, then fight the local feudal lords, it was the infantry from the townspeople who very early began to play an important role … Accordingly, it was easier for the Spanish kings to control their troops, since, of course, the "feudal freeman" dominated in them, but they already had troops at their disposal that strictly obeyed their orders, and … the orders of their commanders.
Spanish knights wearing Tophelm helmets with riveted cross-hair reinforcement. "Illustration from the manuscript" The Song of St. Mary ", 1284 (Royal Library of El Escorial, Madrid)
The illustration is from the same edition. Christian knights chase the fleeing Moors.
It was in Spain that cavalry armed with crossbows appeared already in the middle of the 14th century, that is, an important step forward was made here in relation to the use of throwing weapons on the battlefield. Rice. Angus McBride
However, the Castilian military organization and its tactics were considered old-fashioned by the French and British. Apparently, this was due to the fact that the wars with the Moors on the Iberian Peninsula were considered by them as something very insignificant in comparison with their own confrontation. For example, the use of slingers in the Spanish troops was generally considered an anachronism, while in battles with lightly armed Berber cavalry, the effectiveness of the sling was quite high.
The sling is a scourge in the hands of the Spanish slingers. Illustration 1050-1100 "Bible of Sort", Catalonia, Spain. (National Library, Madrid)
The source base for the study of military affairs in the Iberian Peninsula is primarily miniatures in a number of very important illustrated manuscripts. Despite the fact that Andalusian manuscripts are extremely rare, they nonetheless exist and they have a characteristic artistic style. On them we see the warriors of the Iberian Peninsula, both Christians and Muslims, so in general there are enough miniatures in the manuscripts. There are also effigies, although many of them suffered from a series of revolutions and civil wars. There are also literary monuments, for example, the famous "Song of the Side". The work has been known since the end of the XII - the beginning of the XIII century. A copy of the manuscript from 1207 has also survived, though in poor condition. Unfortunately, the translation of the poem from Spanish into Russian was completely illiterate. Although it is believed that it is close to the historical truth to a much greater extent than other similar works of the heroic epic, and gives a completely true picture of the events that took place in Spain at that time. So, Sid wears a sword in it, although what kind of sword in the XIII century? The given epigraph is also very indicative. "Shield with a thorn" - in fact, it is a shield with a pointed umbo. On the other hand, it contains valuable information and that the spears of the knights in the equestrian battle pierced the shields, if they did not hit the umbon, and that the chain mail of the knights could also be triple knitted, that is, they connected six rings at once, that is three with three. True, such chain mail had to be very heavy. So it is possible that this is a purely artistic exaggeration.
A very interesting "picture" depicting Spanish horse archers. They use horses for movement, but dismount to shoot at the enemy. Miniature from "The Flower History of the Land of the East", 1300-1325. Catalonia, Spain. (National Library, Madrid).
As for Portugal, at the beginning of the 11th century it was part of the Kingdom of Leon, and culturally and militarily it had much in common with Galicia in the north. Moreover, they were united by the fact that both of these areas were largely free from military influence from France. By the 12th century, the process of Portuguese autonomization was practically completed, so that already in 1143, Portugal acquired the status of a kingdom, after which its military efforts were focused on protecting the eastern border with Castile and ensuring independence. The emergence of Portugal's interest in expansion at sea dates back to the XIV century, but at that time the Portuguese did not undertake distant voyages.
Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa. Artist Francisco Van Halen (Prado Museum, Madrid)
The role of the cavalry increased as the Christian offensive on Islamic Andalusia developed, especially since the main form of war was raids of cavalry units on enemy territory in order to seize prey and prisoners, as the same "Song of Side" tells about it. But since most of the country consists of rocky mountains and valleys, it was quite difficult for the cavalry, especially the heavily armed, to act here. Contacts with the British led to the spread of the long yew bow here in the 14th century, replacing the composite bows used by the Arabs in the Christian troops. It was then that knights from England and France began to arrive in Spain in large numbers, who brought with them the experience of the battles of the Hundred Years War. Prior to this, the Spanish martial arts focused on the defense and siege of castles and fortresses and ambushes and raids while avoiding large-scale battles involving large numbers of soldiers. French historian Jean Froissard, drawing on the experience of veterans who participated in the Hundred Years War, wrote about the Spanish soldiers as follows:
It is true that they look good on horseback, throwing their spurs aside for profit, and fight well at the first charge; but as soon as they throw two or three darts and strike with their spears without confusing the enemy, they raise the alarm, turn their horses around, and flee as soon as they can.
Monument to Sid in Burgos
Such tactics were characteristic of a new type of troops at that time - hinets, light cavalry, which had light armor, a saddle with a low rear bow, and short stirrups, as well as mobile Andalusian horses, which allowed them to fight on equal terms with the Muslim cavalry, which used the Berber North African horses. The hinet's weapons were two or three darts and a light spear, which he also used as a throwing one. Moreover, one of the sources describes that during the siege of Lisbon, one such dart, thrown by a hinet, pierced the knight's plate armor, his chain mail, quilted gambeson and came out of his back. At first, the hinets used only shields-adargs, borrowed from the Arabs, but already at the end of the 14th century, typical European quilted aketones began to be worn.
References:
1. Nicolle, D. Arms and Armor of the Crusading Era, 1050-1350. UK. L.: Greenhill Books. Vol.1.
2. Nicolle, D. Armies of the Muslim Conquest. L.: Osprey Publishing (Men-at-Arms # 255), 1993.
3. Verbruggen J. F. The Art of Warfare in Western Europe during the Middle Ages from the Eight Century to 1340. Amsterdam - N. Y. Oxford, 1977.
4. Nicolle, D. El Cid and the Reconquista 1050-1492. L.: Osprey Publishing (Men-at-Arms No. 200), 1988.
5. "Song of the Side", various editions.
