"… but one of the Thracian horsemen …"
(Second Book of Maccabees 12:35)
Foreword
Why in the Bible, where the horseman occurs 39 times, horsemen from Thrace are also mentioned, how did they deserve such an honor along with everyone else? And the whole point is that Thrace was famous precisely for its horsemen, and it was not for nothing that many Roman emperors, starting with Marcus Aurelius, included the name "Sarmatian" in their title. Although … they were cunning in front of their people, since all their victories over the equestrian peoples of the Great Steppe were short-lived and fragile. But it is telling how important the role the horsemen played in the history of mankind, especially if they were well armed.
That is why today we are returning to the knightly topic, but on a slightly different informational level. If earlier it was mainly about certain types of knightly weapons, now it will be a kind of journey across countries and continents, during which knights and their weapons will be considered from one region to another. But within a strictly defined chronological framework - from 1050 to 1350. This was a very important period in the history of the development of weapons and the tactics of their use, the era of the Crusades and the establishment of international ties between very distant countries. Many of the VO readers pointed to the need for just such an approach in presenting the topic of knightly armament, since it would give the opportunity to eventually get a complete, complete picture, and one should admit the validity of such a remark. However, the amount of information on the regions turns out to be very large, even if we limit ourselves to a simple overview of the information available on them. In addition, you will have to face a huge number of repetitions, which, of course, must be avoided. Therefore, the materials of the cycle will primarily be focused on giving a general "picture" of the genesis of knightly weapons in different "lands and countries", then show individual samples of elements of knightly weapons, and, finally, draw conclusions about the general nature of what happened in one or another location at the specified time.
Now, before considering directly the knights and chivalry of the indicated period, let's see what, in fact, did the “riders of war” have in common in different countries and how did they come to this generality?
Norman archers and horsemen attack. However, not everyone is still holding spears under their arms. Some are preparing to throw them the old fashioned way. Scene 51 (detail). Photo from the "Carpet Museum", Bayeux, France)
To begin with, at the beginning of the new era, there were only three truly great empires on the territory of Eurasia: the Roman in the West, the Chinese in the East, and the Persian state in between. The horse train, without which heavy cavalry is unthinkable, China received from Fergana, because the local breed of horses, the descendants of the Przewalski horse, was not suitable for plate cavalry; the Persians received horses from Arabia, and the Romans from Arabia, the Black Sea steppes, and also Spain. "Movable snaffle" has already been described in detail by Xenophon. Spurs among the Greeks, Celts and Romans appeared already in the 4th - 3rd centuries. BC, and then spread to the East. Then in the IV century. somewhere on the border of China and Korea, stirrups were invented, which, together with the Huns, migrated to Europe.
This miniature from a manuscript of 869-950 BC. The riders still have no stirrups. (Saint-Omer, France, Regional Library of Saint-Omer, France)
And now, by the time when the Goths, no less formidable by this time, approached the hitherto formidable Rome, their weapons looked sufficiently "knightly". This can be judged by the example of the proud king of the Goths Totila and how he was equipped for battle on the eve of the battle (in the description of Procopius of Caesarea), although he and his soldiers, according to archaeological data, still did not know the stirrups.
Frankish army on the march. Illustration for Psalm 59. "Golden Psalter". Around 880 (St. Gallen (St. Gall Monastery), Monastery Library, Switzerland)
“… And this is what he began to do. At first, he tried a lot to show the enemy what a great warrior he is. He donned armor of gold plates and adorned himself with ribbons and purple pendants from helmet to spear tip, so that he was completely transformed and became like a king. Sitting astride a splendid horse, he marched between the two armies and, like on a military lists, showed what he was capable of, prancing on a horse, tossing a spear into the air, catching it on the fly. Playfully tossed it from one hand to the other. He prided himself on his dexterity in these matters. He owned a horse in a way that only from an early age, accustomed to the lists, can do it. So the first half of the day passed …"
Miniature by Simon Marmion on the subject of "Song of Roland" from the "Great French Chronicles". Ser. XV century (Russian National Library, St. Petersburg.)
King Clovis and the Chalice at Soissons. It is quite obvious that Clovis in 486 simply could not wear such armor, which indicates the absence of historical thinking among the artists of that time. Miniature from the Great French Chronicles. Ser. XIV century. (National Library, France)
Turning now to The Song of Roland, the canonical text of which is the Oxford Manuscript, written sometime between 1129 and 1165 in Anglo-Norman dialect and stored in the Bodleian Library at Oxford University, you can read the following there:
Great Charles plundered Spain, Destroyed cities and occupied castles.
He thinks that the time of peace has come, And he goes back to sweet France.
Here Roland puts his banner on the ground.
From the hill a banner rose menacingly to the sky.
There are French tents around.
Meanwhile, in the gorges the Saracens are galloping.
They wear steel shells and armor, All in helmets, girded with swords, There is a shield around his neck, a spear in his hand.
The Moors sat in ambush in the mountain thicket.
Four hundred thousand of them gathered there.
Alas, the French do not know this!
Aoi!
However, the equestrian warriors did not have either steel armor (in the sense in which we understand this word) or armor at that time, so this is either an inaccurate translation, or … later scribes replaced the words they did not understand with more "modern" ones. What are we basing this statement on? First of all, it is, of course, the most important “document” of the era we need - the “tapestry from Bayeux”. In fact, this is not a tapestry, but … the most common embroidery of various types with seams and threads of several colors on linen, and sometimes quite amusing. There is a defecating man, a man with green hair and a blue horse. Its end is cut off, which is not surprising, because its length already reaches 68, 38 m with a width of only … 48/53 cm! There is an interesting assumption that its authors were by no means Queen Matilda, wife of Guillaume the Conqueror, but English monks from the monastery of St. Augustine in Canterbury. However, be that as it may, but it is important that her age is also depicted there. The first written mention of its existence dates back to 1476. But it was undoubtedly made much earlier, because it depicts warriors with weapons and armor that did not exist at that time, it is known from other sources. Consequently, "Bayeux embroidery" refers to the time of the Battle of Hastings itself, which she just depicts, that is, it may be 1066, but, most likely, it is several years older. By the way, the very "conquest of England" by Guillaume the Conqueror was nothing more than the expansion of the northern counties of northern and eastern France, and it is from this region that we will begin our journey into the knightly times of that distant time. I would like to emphasize that the illustrative material for this series of articles will be beautiful miniatures from medieval manuscripts - clear witnesses of that distant era. So…
Knights and chivalry of Northern France. Part 1
Let's start by recalling that the state structure of France at that time was very different from the modern one, although, as a state, it already existed. And its "map" was not at all similar to the one we know today. So, in the middle of the 11th century, the county of Flanders, which is now western Belgium, was part of the French kingdom, but Brabant and Hainaut in the east, which are now part of Belgium, then belonged to the Holy Roman Empire. Champagne was also rarely ruled by French kings, but Alsace and Upper Lorraine also belonged to the Empire. The lands of the Duchy of Burgundy around Dijon were part of France, but the county of Burgundy around Besançon was imperial. To the south, almost the entire territory east of the Saone and Rhone rivers was also the property of the German emperors, and the French monarchy was still "waiting in the wings" and only by the middle of the XIV century began its advance to the East.
However, Northern France itself during this period of time can by no means be considered homogeneous either culturally or even militarily. Brittany was largely Celtic in language and maintained its military customs until the end of the 12th century. In the XI century, Normandy still differed from the rest of the country in that the Vikings-Normans settled there at one time, although they very quickly and successfully learned military science from the French and, first of all, how to use detachments of heavily armed cavalry in battles with infantry. The Flemings were the most different from all the past; a significant part of which spoke the Flemish dialect (that is, in Dutch) and, as many believed, were not French at all. Even then, the infantry played a much more prominent role among them than anywhere else in France.
The critical moment of the Battle of Hastings. A rumor spread among the Norman knights that their leader had been killed. Then the duke bared his head so that he could be recognized, and Count Eustace of Bologna, pointing at him, shouted: "Duke William is here!" Scene 55/56. Photo from the "Carpet Museum", Bayeux)
A number of foreign historians believe that it was Northern France, which so successfully opposed Britain, was the main source of Western European military fashion, but not technological or tactical innovations. It has been noticed that from the 9th to the 11th centuries, the importance of poorer vassals, serving either as infantry or in unarmed cavalry, steadily decreased here. The term milites now began to refer specifically to a horseman, usually dressed in armor, whereas earlier it meant simply armed people without distinction on horse or foot.
Spearhead 15th century Length 23.3 cm. Weight 2579.8 g. Such "winged tips" appeared in Europe simultaneously with the knightly cavalry and were used until its disappearance. The side protrusions did not allow the spear to enter too deeply into the body. (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York)
That is, in 1050 and later, there was already a specialization in the field of military affairs and the separation of knights as the military elite. But massive military training is becoming a rarity. However, the cities have not yet had great military significance, either as a source of troops or as centers of defense. But the prohibition of the church on the war, which established the so-called "God's peace", took place both in the north of France and in the south. Moreover, by limiting the scale of hostilities and their duration, the church only contributed to the professionalization of the warrior class.
A 1200 miniature depicting horsemen in hauberg-type chain mail using the spear technique. The spears are equipped with triangular pennants, the shields are in the form of an inverted drop. Horse blankets, which still served to protect animals from the heat, are noteworthy. ("Pamplona Illustrated Bible and Lives of Saints", Pamplona, Spain, University of Augsburg Library, Germany)
The next miniature is from the same manuscript. Above there are horsemen, below are infantrymen, whose weapons differ greatly from those of the horsemen.
By the end of the 11th century, horsemen's military equipment had become sufficiently standardized and very expensive, and its correct use began to require skills that came only as a result of prolonged training. Moreover, the milites trained as part of the detachments, when they were called by the lords to their court, and, of course, individually, "at home", in fortified castles. "A knight is one who trains a lot with weapons" - such was the view of chivalry at the beginning of the studied period. Moreover, it dropped, and where did he get this weapon, where did he get free time for this, as well as food for himself, as well as for his horse. The implication was that he had all this, otherwise what a knight he was!
Typical European chain mail made of welded rings, connected by forged U-shaped brackets. (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York)
The combat coordination of the detachments was quite high. For example, the "feigned retreat", successfully applied at the Battle of Hastings, became a common tactic at this time, at least among the Normans and Bretons. The technique of "kushin the spear", that is, when the rider squeezes it under the arm, became the most noticeable tactical technique in Western Europe in the late 11th and early 12th centuries. However, heavy and long swords continued to be very important weapons of the cavalry. The fact is that the arrowheads with a crossbar on the "winged spears" did not always allow this weapon to be preserved after the first spear blow, and then the rider had to fight with the sword. This led to an elongation of its handle, which had previously clamped the warrior's hand, while the crosshair began to bend towards the blade and lengthen to the sides.
Bas-relief depicting the Conqueror at Div-sur-Mer, Chateau Guillaume le Concourt, Falaise. Attention is drawn to the "armor" made of rings sewn onto the base, not riveted ones, and a long Norman "serpentine shield".
Biblical Goliath. A realistic depiction of a warrior from the early 11th century, from the Cotonian Psalter or Psalter of Tiberius (c. 1050, Winchester). The crosshair of the sword is indicative, since now it was used more and more by horsemen. (British Museum, London)
The importance of archery also increased, although in some areas it was more popular than others. Normandy in this case claims a certain priority in the use of the bow. At the same time, in France, as in most other countries of Western Europe, the bow was gradually replaced by the crossbow. The importance of crossbowmen is indicated by the appearance of mounted infantry armed with crossbows, which began already at the end of the 12th century. Such shooters were also professionals in their field and in the same France were under the command of the "Grand Master of Crossbowmen", which title appeared in 1230. It is believed that the crossbow was largely a response to the proliferation of plate armor in Europe in the late 13th and early 14th centuries.
Archers and crossbowmen. Miniature from the manuscript "World and Marienleben Chronicle", 1300-1350. Lower Austria. (Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg Library, Germany)
A rare depiction of horse archers on a miniature from the "World and Marienleben Chronicle" manuscript, 1300-1350. Lower Austria. (Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg Library, Germany)
The process of specialization of military affairs, which began in the 12th and 13th centuries, became especially noticeable later. The kings and their barons began to use mercenaries more and more actively. For example, in 1202 - 1203. The king of France on the Norman border had a military contingent of 257 mounted knights, 267 mounted sergeants, 80 mounted crossbowmen, 133 foot crossbowmen and about 2,000 foot sergeants, who were supported by another 300 mercenaries, whose affiliation to the army is unknown. That is, it was a small, but sufficiently professional army.
Miniature depicting fighting horsemen, dated 1365 from the World Chronicle by Rudolf von Ems. (State Library of Baden-Württemberg, Germany)
Flanders all this time remained the main source of mercenary troops, both cavalry and infantry, until the XIV century. Many cities created their own militias, which were supplied by the city guilds. Moreover, the infantry continued to play a vital role throughout the first half of the XIV century, although subsequently its role declines again. These included light javelin infantry known as bidouts, who appear to have operated in close contact with the knightly cavalry. Firearms first appeared among the French as early as 1338 and were often mentioned in the chronicles of the 1340s.
"Viking's Funeral". Painting by C. E. Butler (1864 - 1933), 1909. Warriors are depicted in scaly shells, which generally does not contradict historical facts. At the same time, due to the greater weight and high cost of metal, chain mail became more widespread, despite the significant laboriousness of its manufacture.
Segmental helmet VII century. (German National Museum, Nuremberg, Germany)
P. S. Interestingly, in his account of the Battle of Hastings in 1066, written before 1127, William of Malsmbury says that before the battle began, the cantilena Rollandi was sung, that is, "the song of Roland," in order to inspire the soldiers by an example of a warlike husband. " You are a Norman poet of the 12th century, adds to this that it was sung by Tylefer, who also asked for the honor of striking the first blow to the enemy.
References:
1. Bridgeford A. 1066. The hidden History of the Bayeux Tapestry. L: Fourth Estate, 2004.
2. Nicolle D. The age of Charlemagne. L.: Osprey (Men-at-arms series No. 150), 1984.
3. Nicolle D. Arms and Armor of the Crusading Era, 1050-1350. UK. L.: Greenhill Books. Vol.1.
4. Verbruggen J. F. The Art of Warfare in Western Europe during the Middle Ages from the Eight Century to 1340. Amsterdam - N. Y. Oxford, 1977.
5. Gravett, K., Nicole, D. Normans. Knights and conquerors (Translated from English A. Kolin) M.: Eksmo, 2007.
6. Cardini, F. The origins of medieval knighthood. (Abridged translation from Italian by V. P. Gaiduk) M.: Progress, 1987.
