In the mid-50s, it became clear that British fighters were far behind American and Soviet peers. While in other countries, not only interceptors, but also supersonic front-line fighters were mass-produced and adopted, the Royal Air Force continued to operate and produce subsonic vehicles. Moreover, the combat debut of the British Gloster Meteors during the fighting in Korea showed their complete failure as a front-line fighter. However, the likelihood of maneuverable air battles with Soviet fighters over the British Isles was low, and the RAF needed not an analogue of the American F-100 Super Saber or the Soviet MiG-19, but a supersonic all-weather interceptor with high acceleration characteristics, equipped with a powerful radar, cannons and guided missiles β¦
The creation of such a machine has been going on at English Electric (in 1960 it became part of the British Aircraft Corporation) since the late 40s. Many original technical solutions were implemented in the plane, which received the name Lightning (Lightning). According to the concept of creating an interceptor adopted in those years, the radar, weapons and controls were linked in such a way as to ensure all-weather interception of a target within the range of the onboard radar and automatically track and destroy it without the obligatory participation of the pilot.
On the Lightning, the cockpit was raised above the fuselage to provide better visibility. As a result of the increase in the level of the cabin, the size of the gargrot increased, which made it possible to place the fuel tank and elements of the avionics in it. The fighter could carry two Firestreak air-to-air missiles with an infrared homing head and a pair of 30-mm Aden cannons mounted in the upper nose of the fuselage. Guided missiles could be replaced by two blocks with 36 68-mm NAR or two more 30-mm cannons. The aircraft had a 60 Β° swept wing and two Rolls Royce Avon 210P turbojet engines located one above the other, each with a thrust of 6545 kgf.
Another innovation was an adjustable air intake with a shock generator in the form of a central movable cone, inside which was a Ferranti AI.23 monopulse radar capable of detecting a bomber at a distance of 64 km. A computerized fire control system was coupled with the radar, which, in automatic mode, with the participation of an autopilot, should ideally bring the interceptor to the optimal position for launching missiles and lock the target with homing heads, after which the pilot only had to press the missile launch button.
Lightning F.1
Operation of Lightning F.1 interceptors in combat squadrons began in 1960. The aircraft of the first modification suffered from numerous "childhood ailments" and had insufficient flight range. Due to the "raw" design and lack of spare parts, the combat readiness of the Lightning was initially low. Almost immediately after the start of mass production, improvements were made to the design. The aircraft received an air refueling system and a more powerful engine. The first public display of the new interceptors took place at the Farnborough Air Show in 1961.
At the end of 1962, the F.2 interceptors entered service. On this version, changes were made to improve the stability and controllability of the aircraft. Option F.2A to increase the flight range received a non-resettable external 2800 liter tank. Thanks to this, the combat radius of the interceptor increased significantly, and the Lightning F.2A was deployed at British bases in Germany to perform low-altitude interception of Soviet Il-28s.
Lightning F.3 lands at Brynbrook AFB.
The Lightning F.3 soon went into production, with new Avon 301R engines and a larger tail area. Improved aerodynamics and more powerful engines increased the maximum speed to 2450 km / h. The upgraded AI.23B radar and the Red Tor missile missile system allowed for a head-on attack on the target, but the interceptor was deprived of its built-in cannons. On the F.3A model, the capacity of the internal fuel tanks was increased to 3260 liters, and it was also possible to suspend a non-dumping tank with a capacity of 2800 liters.
The last serial modification was the Lightning F.6. In general, it was identical to the F.3, with the exception of the suspension of two drop-down 1200 liter PTBs. Later, in connection with the RAF's claims about the lack of built-in weapons on board the interceptor, two "Aden" 30s were returned to the nose of the fuselage on the F.6A modification. The addition of cannons and ammunition to them reduced the fuel supply on board from 2770 to 2430 liters, but the cannons expanded the capabilities of the interceptor, which, after a salvo of two missiles, became unarmed. And the Firestreak and Red Tor missiles themselves with thermal homing heads were far from perfect, had low noise immunity and a short launch range.
The Lightning F.6A interceptor with a maximum take-off weight of 20, 752 kg, had a flight range of 1370 km (with external tanks up to 2040 km). The supersonic interception radius was 250 km. The weak point of all Lightnings was their short range. However, for a long time, the interceptor had unrivaled acceleration characteristics and rate of climb. In terms of the rate of climb (15 km / min), it surpassed not only many of its peers, but also later fighters: Mirage IIIE - 10 km / min, MiG-21 - 12 km / min, and even Tornado F.3 - 13 km / min. The pilots of the American F-15Π‘, who flew along with the "Lightnings" of later modifications, noted that in terms of acceleration characteristics the British fighter was not inferior to their much more modern machines.
Despite the fact that "Lightning" has long been removed from service, its altitude data has never been officially disclosed. Representatives of the Royal Air Force of Great Britain, during presentations at air shows, stated that the maximum flight altitude exceeded 18,000 meters. However, in fact, the interceptor could fly at much higher altitudes. So in 1984, during a joint US-British exercise, a successful training interception of the U-2 high-altitude reconnaissance was carried out. In total, 337 Lightnings were built in Great Britain, taking into account prototypes, export orders and training two-seater vehicles. Operation of interceptors in the RAF ended in 1988, after almost 30 years of service.
In the second half of the 70s, the "Lightning" in the interceptor squadrons were seriously pushed aside by the American F-4 Phantom II fighters. Initially, in 1969, the British purchased in the USA 116 F-4M (Phantom FGR. Mk II) and F-4K (Phantom FG.1), which were a βBritishizedβ version of the F-4J with Rolls-Royce Spey Mk.202 engines and Avionics of British production.
British F-4M entered the fighter-bomber squadrons stationed in the FRG. But after the adoption of the SEPECAT Jaguar aircraft, the strike "Phantoms" were relocated to British airfields. An even more interesting collision happened with the naval F-4K. Soon after the purchase of deck interceptors and their development by pilots, the British leadership, in order to save the budget, decided to abandon full-fledged aircraft carriers, and, accordingly, deck "Phantoms" in Royal Navy were "out of work".
As a result, all the F-4M and F-4K available in the RAF were converted into interceptors. In general, the plane was well suited for this. The Phantom's advantages over Lightning were a long flight duration, a powerful multifunctional radar and AIM-7 Sparrow medium-range missiles with a semi-active radar seeker. Missiles "Sparrow" from the mid-60s were equipped with a rod warhead weighing 30 kg and proximity fuses. Compared to the standard British Lightning missiles, the AIM-7 Sparrow missile had much better combat characteristics and could hit targets at a range of 30 km.
Joint flight of British interceptors "Lightning" and "Phantom"
For a long time, the Lightnings and Phantoms served in parallel in the air defense squadrons of the British Air Force. As the early Lightning F.2 and F.3 models were decommissioned, Royal Air Force purchased 15 more F-4Js from the US Navy in 1984 to compensate for the lack of equipment. In addition to British airfields, several 1435 interceptors were stationed at Mount Pleasant Air Force Base in the Falkland Islands. The end of the Cold War and the development of the Tornado ADV fighter-interceptor in combat squadrons led to the decommissioning of the Phantoms. The last 56th Squadron, known as the Firebirds, delivered their F-4s in late 1992.
Simultaneously with the Lightning interceptor, the British Defense Department initiated the creation of a long-range anti-aircraft missile system. Two SAMs with very similar missiles reached the finish line: Thunderbird (English Electric) and Bloodhound (Bristol). Both missiles had a relatively narrow cylindrical body with a conical fairing and a large tail unit, but differed in the type of propulsion systems used. On the side surfaces of the missile defense system, four discharged starting solid-propellant boosters were attached.
Unlike the first-generation anti-aircraft missiles with a radio command guidance system, created in the USA and the USSR, the British from the very beginning planned to use a semi-active homing head for their air defense systems in combination with the Ferranti type 83 radar. radar illumination was used, it, like a searchlight, illuminated the target for the homing head. This guidance method had greater accuracy compared to the radio command one and was not so dependent on the skills of the guidance operator.
In 1958, the Thunderbird air defense missile system entered service with the 36th and 37th heavy anti-aircraft air defense regiments of the ground forces. Initially, the air defense missile systems served to protect important industrial and military facilities in Great Britain, but in the first half of the 60s, all anti-aircraft missile regiments of the ground forces were transferred to the Rhine army.
The length of the Mk 1 solid-propellant rocket was 6350 mm, and the diameter was 527 mm. For its time, the solid-propellant SAM "Thunderbird" had very high data. It had an aimed launch range of 40 km and an altitude reach of 20 km, which was very close to the characteristics of the V-750 liquid anti-aircraft missile system of the Soviet SA-75 Dvina air defense system.
SAM "Thunderbird"
To transport and launch the Thunderbird missile defense system, a 94-mm anti-aircraft gun carriage was used. The anti-aircraft battery consisted of: guidance radar, control post, diesel generators and from 4 to 8 towed launchers.
In 1965, the anti-aircraft complex underwent modernization. In order to improve reliability, reduce energy consumption, weight and dimensions, a part of the electrovacuum element base was transferred to a semiconductor one. Instead of a pulse tracking and guidance radar, a more powerful and noise-immune station operating in continuous radiation mode was introduced into the air defense missile system. At the same time, the level of the signal reflected from the target increased, and it became possible to fire at aircraft flying at an altitude of 50 meters. Thanks to the use of new fuel formulations in the main engine and launch boosters, the launch range of the Thunderbird Mk. II increased to 60 km.
Despite the fact that the modernized air defense system had a good range and altitude, and at the same time was quite simple to operate, its service in the air defense units of the British Ground Forces was short-lived. Already in the early 70s, the British army began to abandon this complex, and in 1977 the last "Thunderbird" was decommissioned. The dimensions and weight of the anti-aircraft battery equipment were very significant, which made it difficult to transport and camouflage on the ground. In addition, the capabilities of anti-aircraft systems located in the FRG in the fight against such low-altitude and maneuverable targets as combat helicopters and fighter-bombers were very limited and the British military preferred the short-range low-altitude Rapier systems.
After the adoption of the Thunderbird air defense system, the future of the Bloodhound anti-aircraft complex developed by Bristol was in question. The army refused to finance further work on the "Hound", as it was quite satisfied with the "Petrel". However, the Bloodhound was rescued by the British Air Force, which saw great potential in this missile.
With outward resemblance, in comparison with the solid-propellant anti-aircraft missile system "Thunderbird", the liquid-propellant missile "Bloodhound" with a ramjet engine had a much more complex design and was the largest. Its length was 7700 mm, and its diameter was 546 mm. The rocket weight exceeded 2050 kg.
SAM Bloodhound
SAM "Bloodhound" had a very unusual layout, as a sustainer propulsion system used two ramjet engines running on kerosene. Sustaining rocket engines were mounted in parallel on the upper and lower parts of the hull. To accelerate the rocket to the speed at which the ramjet engines were launched, four solid-propellant boosters were used, dropped after the rocket accelerated and the propulsion engines began to work. The cruising speed of the rocket was 2, 2 M.
The finishing of the "Hound" went very hard. For a long time, the developers failed to achieve stable operation of the rocket engine in the entire range of heights. During intense maneuvers, the engines often stalled due to the stalling of the air flow. The great complexity of the guidance equipment played a role. Unlike the Thunderbird air defense system, the Bloodhound anti-aircraft battery used two target illumination radars, which made it possible to launch all missiles in the firing position at two enemy air targets with a short interval. To develop the optimal trajectory and the moment of launching an anti-aircraft missile, one of the first British serial computers, Ferranti Argus, was used as part of the complex. The launch range of the first serial modification of the "Bloodhound" was very modest - 30 km. But representatives of the RAF greeted the new air defense system favorably, it was put on combat duty in 1959. The positions of the "Hounds" provided cover for the air bases of the British strategic bombers "Vulcan".
However, in addition to the disadvantages: the higher cost of production and operation, "Bloodhound" in comparison with "Thunderbird" had advantages. The Hound missiles had the best maneuverability, which was affected by the large volume of tests at the Australian Woomera test site. In the course of 500 real launches of missiles, the developers were able to find the optimal layout and shape of the control surfaces located near the center of gravity. Forcing the speed of the missile's turn in the vertical plane was also achieved by changing the amount of fuel supplied to one of the engines. The Bloodhound air defense missile system had greater fire performance, since the battery included two target illumination radars and more combat-ready anti-aircraft missiles in position.
Almost simultaneously with the Thunderbird Mk. II, the Bloodhound Mk. II. This anti-aircraft system has in many ways surpassed its initially more successful rival. The dimensions and weight of the modernized "Bloodhound" anti-aircraft guided missiles have increased significantly. Rocket Bloodhound Mk. II became 760 mm longer and 250 kg heavier. The increased supply of fuel on board and the use of more powerful engines made it possible to increase the maximum speed to 2.7 M, and the flight range to 85 km, that is, more than 2.5 times. The introduction of the powerful and jam-resistant radar Ferranti Type 86 "Firelight" into the complex made it possible to fire targets at low altitudes.
Radar tracking and guidance Ferranti Type 86 "Firelight"
Thanks to the introduction of a separate communication channel with the missile on the new missile defense and radar, the signal received by the homing head was transmitted to the control post. This made it possible to produce effective selection of false targets and suppression of interference. After a radical modernization of the air defense system, not only the range increased, but also the probability of hitting the target.
In the second half of the 70s, in the vicinity of the airbases, where the "Hounds" were on combat duty, they began to build special 15-meter towers, which housed target illumination radars. This significantly increased the ability to combat targets trying to break through to a protected object at low altitude. The end of the service of the Bloodhound air defense system coincided with the collapse of the USSR, the last complexes went into retirement in the second half of 1991. Since then, the British Air Force and air defense units of the ground forces no longer have medium and long-range anti-aircraft systems, although there is a need for this.
In the mid-60s, Great Britain decided to modernize the national air defense system ROTOR. The cumbersome command and warning structure relied on dozens of command bunkers and numerous fixed radars were too expensive. Instead of the Rotor defense system, it was decided to develop the multifunctional Linesman program. The creation of a dual-purpose system, designed, in addition to detecting enemy bombers and issuing target designations to interceptors and air defense systems, to regulate the movement of civil aircraft, was entrusted to the Royal Radar Establishment, a research organization dealing with radar and communications problems.
Within the framework of the "Mediator" program, it was planned to modernize part of the Type 80 radar, build new jam-resistant radars Type 84 and Type 85, eliminate most of the regional air defense centers, transferring the main functions to a single command center located in the vicinity of London. But to increase the reliability of the system, two more spare command posts were envisaged at RAF air bases.
In order to save money, it was decided to transmit the radar "picture" from the new radar for the survey of the air situation through radio relay stations, and not over cable lines. Computing facilities and automated data transmission equipment were widely used in the updated information processing and transmission system, which made it possible to reduce the decision-making time and reduce the number of personnel involved in comparison with the Rotor system.
Passive reconnaissance station RX12874 Winkle
The main means of monitoring the air situation in the "Posrednik" dual-purpose system were the Type 84 and Type 85 radars, the Deca HF-200 radio altimeters and the RX12874 Winkle radio-technical passive reconnaissance station designed to determine the coordinates of jamming aircraft. Compared to the radars of the Rotor system, the number of new radars deployed is 5 times less.
Radar Type 84
The Tyre 84 radar with a peak power of 2.5 MW worked in the L-band at a wavelength of 23 cm and could detect targets at a distance of up to 240 km. Information update rate - 4 rpm.
Radar Type 85
The British S-band Type 85 radar, operating at a wavelength of 10 cm, became one of the first three-coordinate stations capable of simultaneously determining the azimuth, range, altitude and speed of the target. It was a very large radar with a peak power of 4.5 MW, rotating at 4 revolutions per minute. Its detection range of air targets reached 400 km.
The "Mediator" airspace control system was fully operational in the mid-70s. Compared to the previous Rotor air defense system, it was possible to significantly reduce operating costs by reducing the number of command posts and writing off some of the Tyre 80 radars that needed repair. At the same time, critics pointed to a decrease in the combat stability of the new dual-use system. Since the data transmission was carried out via radio relay channels much more vulnerable to interference and external influence, the number of radar posts on duty was reduced several times.
