During the Second World War, Great Britain was forced to spend significant resources to defend against devastating German air raids. In September 1939, the British air defense was completely unprepared for war. The air attack warning network was in its infancy, command posts and communication centers had to be created practically from scratch. Fighters of modern types were clearly not enough, and anti-aircraft guns capable of hitting targets at medium and high altitudes, at best, 10% of the required number was available. By the beginning of hostilities, the British skies were covered by 29 regular and territorial anti-aircraft artillery batteries, while London was protected by only 104 76-94-mm guns. To correct the current situation, the British leadership had to take emergency organizational measures, invest huge funds in setting up production at their enterprises and purchase the missing weapons, raw materials, materials and artificial equipment from the United States (for more details here: British anti-aircraft air defense systems during the Second World War).
Compared to the United States, whose continental part was not raided by enemy bombers, in the United Kingdom during the war, much more attention was paid to building an air defense system, which included a network of radar stations, observation posts, communication centers, numerous anti-aircraft batteries, searchlight installations, and day and night interceptor squadrons. The stake was placed on fighter cover, as well as on local air defense zones around the main cities and ports.
After the start of the air "Battle of Britain", when the German command tried to achieve the surrender of Great Britain with the help of the Luftwaffe bombers, the British soon came to understand that effective air defense can only be with centralized leadership and tight coordination of interceptors and anti-aircraft artillery. And although the creation of territorial air defense areas with a single centralized leadership began in 1936, this process was completed only after the start of massive German bombing raids.
In addition to the main command headquarters, where all information from the VNOS and radar posts flocked, the entire territory of the country was divided into sectors, each with its own command post, capable of acting autonomously in the event of a loss of communication with the central command.
Full-scale production in Great Britain of large-caliber anti-aircraft guns and fighters continued until the summer of 1945. In addition to guns and interceptors of their own production, the British air defense units had a lot of radars, anti-aircraft guns and fighters received from the United States.
Until mid-1945, British industry supplied more than 10,000 94mm 3.7-In QF AA anti-aircraft guns. In 1947, just under a third of these guns were still in service. By the end of the war, the British managed to significantly increase the effectiveness of the 94-mm anti-aircraft guns, improving the fire control system and equipping the gun with a mechanical rammer and an automated fuse installation device. As a result, the rate of fire of the gun, which threw a 12, 96 kg projectile to a height of more than 9 km, increased to 25 rounds per minute.
Since 1944, shells with a radio fuse have been introduced into the ammunition of all large-caliber anti-aircraft guns, as a result of which the probability of hitting an air target has significantly increased. So, the use of radio fuses in combination with PUAZO, information on which came from radars, made it possible to increase the number of V-1 destroyed when they were fired by anti-aircraft guns from 24% to 79%.
113 mm QF anti-aircraft gun, 4.5-In AA Mk II
Although after the end of the war, the number of British anti-aircraft artillery units was more than halved, in the vicinity of naval bases and other strategically important objects in fixed positions in 1947 there were more than 200 heavy 4.5-inch (113-mm) anti-aircraft guns. QF, 4.5-In AA Mk II. A 113-mm projectile weighing 24.7 kg, fired at a speed of 732 m / s, could hit air targets at a range of 12,000 m. The rate of fire of the QF, 4.5-In AA Mk II was 15 rounds / min.
The heaviest and most long-range British anti-aircraft guns were the 133-mm universal guns 5, 25 QF Mark I. In 1942, three twin turret gun mounts were placed on concrete foundations in the vicinity of London. naval bases, both in Great Britain and in the colonies. These installations were in service until the beginning of the 60s.
133-mm universal turret mount 5, 25 QF Mark I
They were entrusted with the tasks of coastal defense and the fight against high-flying aircraft. 133 mm guns had a rate of fire up to 10 rds / min. The reach at an altitude of 14,000 m made it possible to fire 36, 3-kg fragmentation shells at enemy aircraft flying at heights inaccessible to other anti-aircraft guns. These large-caliber anti-aircraft guns, after the appearance of shells with radio fuses, showed very good results in the fight against high-altitude air targets. After the first sighting volley, to correct the guidance from the radar, they immediately went on to cover the target. Although the adoption of 133-mm guns occurred after the cessation of massive raids by German bombers, single Luftwaffe aircraft carrying out bombing and reconnaissance raids very soon began to avoid the areas covered by these guns. However, the big disadvantages of 133-mm anti-aircraft guns were the high cost of the shells and the installations themselves and the stationary nature of the placement.
In 1942, at sea, on the approaches to major British ports, the construction of air defense forts began. Each of these forts consisted of 7 interconnected towers armed with 94 and 40 mm anti-aircraft guns and searchlights.
Anti-aircraft guns in the towers were located in the same way as on land batteries and had the ability to conduct concentrated fire in any direction. During the war years, anti-aircraft forts mainly covered naval bases and ports from attacks by German bombers flying at low altitudes, and showed themselves very well. However, their post-war service was short-lived, in the 50s the air defense forts were mothballed, and then completely decommissioned.
Before the advent of radars, the main means of detecting approaching enemy aircraft were visual observation posts and acoustic devices that recorded the sound of operating aircraft engines. In 1940, there were 1,400 observation posts in the United Kingdom, mainly in the south and southeast coasts. In the first half of the 1930s, on the south coast in Kent, construction of capital concrete acoustic detection stations, known by the romantic name "Echo Mirrors", was underway.
With the help of a concrete "cup" with a diameter of 8-10 meters and a microphone with a tube amplifier and a bandpass filter, in calm weather, it was possible to detect approaching enemy bombers at a distance of up to 40 km.
In addition to the "cups" in the 1930s, three ellipse-like concrete walls, more than 60 meters long and about 10 meters high, were built on the coast. These structures were supposed to record the low-frequency hum of approaching enemy bombers with the help of microphones and, in a given sector, determine the direction of aircraft flight at a distance of up to 50 km. Unparalleled in other countries, acoustic "cups" and "walls" were used before the advent of radars to detect aircraft flying to the British Isles from the continent. Construction of concrete sound detectors stopped after impressive advances in radar were made. Nevertheless, acoustic installations were used until the spring of 1944 and not only to detect aircraft. With the help of sound transceivers, in a number of cases, it was possible to detect the deployment of enemy coastal batteries, the movement of heavy equipment and artillery salvos of warships. It is noteworthy that the operators of sound-detecting installations were often blind volunteers.
Fire control of all British large-caliber anti-aircraft guns, from mid-1944 until their removal from service, was carried out according to radar data. The first radar stations for detecting air targets in England were commissioned back in 1938, but they began to really pay attention to radars only after the start of air raids.
In 1940, the radar network consisted of 80 stations. Initially, these were bulky stationary AMES Type 1 radars, fixed antennas of which were suspended on metal masts 115 m high. Receiving antennas were placed on 80-meter wooden towers. The antenna had a wide directional pattern - an aircraft flying at an altitude of 5000 meters could be detected in a 120 ° sector at a distance of up to 200 km. In 1942, the deployment of stations with a rotating antenna began, which searched for targets in a circular sector.
Radar Type 7
The first stationary Type 7 radars with a rotating antenna, operating in the 193-200 MHz range, were able to detect high-altitude air targets with a sufficiently high accuracy of determining coordinates at a distance of up to 150 km. Thanks to the all-round view, it was possible to view the airspace from all directions and correct the actions of fighter-interceptors. The operation of modernized radars of this type continued until the end of the 50s. The British pioneered the creation of a friend-or-foe identification system. Starting in 1943, RAF aircraft began to receive transponders, allowing them to be identified on radar screens.
In addition to stationary early-warning radars, from the beginning of 1940, anti-aircraft batteries began to be given observation mobile stations, which, in addition to detecting enemy bombers at a distance of 30-50 km, corrected anti-aircraft artillery fire and controlled the actions of anti-aircraft searchlights.
Radar GL Mk. III
During the war years, several types of fire control radars were used in the British anti-aircraft units. The most massive station was developed in Canada GL Mk. III. In total, from 1942 to 1945, more than 300 such radars were supplied to British air defense units, while British sources claim that 50 such stations were sent to the USSR. Also, the American SCR-584 radar was very widely used. Operation GL Mk. III and SCR-584 in Great Britain continued until 1957, when the last large-caliber anti-aircraft batteries were eliminated.
In the early post-war years, the air defense system of the British Isles relied on numerous Spitfire piston fighters, Mosquito and Bowfighter night interceptors, equipped with compact radars. After the British twin-engine night fighters received radars, the effectiveness of their actions increased 12 times.
10 cm radar used on the Mosquito and Bowfighter night fighters
Back in July 1944, the Royal Air Force adopted the Gloster G.41A Meteor F. Mk I jet fighter. Soon, the Meteors achieved their first successes, shooting down 2 V-1 projectiles (they shot down 14 “flying bombs” in total) … In November 1945, a specially prepared Meteor F. Mk IV set a world speed record of 969.6 km / h.
Gloster G.41A Meteor F. Mk I
The release of improved modifications of the fighter continued in the post-war years. Although by the beginning of the 50s the aircraft was outdated and inferior to the Soviet MiG-15, its production lasted until 1955.
In 1943, the design of the de Havilland DH.100 Vampire jet fighter, built on a two-boom scheme, began. The first fighters of the Vampire F.1 modification entered service in the spring of 1946. The aircraft in horizontal flight accelerated to 882 km / h and was armed with four 20-mm cannons.
Vampire F.1
According to its flight data, the jet "Vampire" was not much superior to the post-war piston fighters. But this small two-boom aircraft was very simple and inexpensive, and therefore was built in large series. A total of 3269 aircraft were built in the UK alone. However, due to the fact that the "Vampire" could not compete on equal terms with the "Sabers" and MiGs, their main part was produced in the version of a fighter-bomber. Single "Vampires" in combat squadrons of the Royal Air Force flew until the end of the 50s, the operation of two-seater training vehicles continued until 1967.
To replace the Mosquito piston night lights in 1949, the Vampire NF.10 two-seater night fighter with the AI Mk.10 radar was created. The pilot and the operator sat in it "shoulder to shoulder." A total of 95 night "Vampires" were built, they were in service from 1951 to 1954.
The further development of the Vampire fighter was de Havilland DH 112 Venom. The aircraft, which entered service in 1953, differed from its predecessor with a new thin wing and disposable fuel tanks at the tips. Armament in comparison with the "Vampire" remained the same, but the maximum speed increased to 1,030 km / h and the range slightly increased. All single-seat vehicles were originally built as fighter-bombers.
Venom NF. Mk 3
The Venom NF. Mk.2 two-seater night fighter, equipped with a radar, entered service in 1952. It differed from a single-seat fighter-bomber in an extended and elongated fuselage. Three years later, the improved Venom NF. Mk.3 entered service with the Royal Air Force, but already in 1957, the night interceptor squadrons began to replace it with the all-weather Gloster Javelin.
Until it became known in 1949 that the Soviet Union had tested an atomic bomb, Soviet bombers were not considered a major threat in Great Britain, which was far enough from Soviet airfields. Now, even a single bomber with a nuclear weapon on board could destroy a major city or naval base. The Tu-4 piston bombers could not reach the territory of the United States and return back, but they had enough flight range for operations in the British Isles. The likelihood of a nuclear strike on England was very high, since the bases of American strategic bombers were located there, and as the United States created medium-range ballistic missiles, they were deployed on British territory.
To give stability to the British air defense system in the context of the use of nuclear weapons, the top secret ROTOR program was initiated. At Air Force bases and on the east coast, 60 heavily fortified bunkers were built, equipped with communication lines and isolated life support systems. About half of the bunkers capable of withstanding a close explosion of a 20 kt nuclear charge were two or three tier. The entire territory of the country, as part of the implementation of the Rotor program, was divided into 6 sectors of the Operational Command.
It was assumed that from these bunkers, tied into a single automated warning network, in a nuclear war, the air defense and strategic forces will be guided. The work on the creation and technical equipment of the objects of the "Rotor" system was entrusted to the Marconi Company, while thousands of kilometers of underground cable lines were laid to command posts from surveillance radars and communication centers. However, by the beginning of the 50s, the UK did not have its own modern early warning radars and, as a temporary measure, they had to be urgently purchased from the United States.
Radar AN / FPS-3
The American AN / FPS-3 centimeter range radar was capable of detecting air targets at a distance of up to 250 km. Together with the AN / FPS-3 radar, the AN / FPS-6 radar altimeters were used. Before the start of the deployment of radars of its own production in the UK, they managed to put into operation 6 radar posts based on the AN / FPS-3 and AN / FPS-6 radars.
AN / FPS-6
In 1954, the first Type 80 "Green garlic" radar, created by the Marconi company, entered service. In accordance with the British "rainbow code" designation of weapons, the radar was named "Green Garlic". Even in comparison with the rather big American station AN / FPS-3, it was a real monster with a peak power of up to 2.5 mW, operating in the range of 2980-3020 MHz. The detection range of high-altitude targets with Type 80 radar reached 370 km.
Radar Type 80
In total, 64 stationary radar stations were deployed in Great Britain in the 1950s. The Deca HF-200 radio altimeters often worked in tandem with the Type 80 all-round radars. In the second half of the 1950s, it became clear that the main threat to Britain was not bombers, but medium-range ballistic missiles and submarines. In this regard, in order to save money, part of the Type 80 and HF-200 radars were sold to Germany and Sweden.
Despite the fact that the UK created a combat-ready jet fighter earlier than the USA, by the early 50s the RAF did not have a truly effective interceptor. The Hawker Hunter, adopted in 1954, was generally not bad and surpassed the American F-86 Saber in a number of parameters. But even taking into account the very powerful built-in armament, consisting of four 30-mm air cannons "Aden", and guidance on commands from ground-based radar, to provide full protection of the British Isles even from outdated piston bombers "Hunter" could not.
Fighters Hunter F.6
The pilot of the "Hunter" was not able to independently search for air targets in difficult weather conditions and at night, since the fighter had very simple aiming equipment: a radio range finder to determine the distance to the target and a gyroscopic sight (for more details see: Hawker Hunter fighter - air hunter).
In 1955, the RAF adopted the Gloster Javelin, an all-weather interceptor capable of operating at any time of the day. For its time, it was a highly advanced radar-equipped vehicle armed with a battery of four 30mm cannons. Due to the need to share responsibilities, an on-board radar operator was added to the crew. On the first serial modification of the FAW Mk. I, the British-made airborne radar AI.17 was installed, but it was soon replaced by the American Westinghouse AN / APQ-43 (the British licensed copy received the designation AI.22).
Gloster Javelin FAW Mk. I
In 1956, the interceptor was equipped with de Havilland Firestreak missiles with TGS, which had a launch range of just over 6 km. The Javelin was capable of speeds up to 1140 km / h with a practical flight range of 1500 km. To increase the duration of the air patrol, some of the aircraft were equipped with an air refueling system. By the mid-60s, when long-range aviation regiments in the USSR received a large number of Tu-16, Tu-95, M-4 and 3M bombers, the subsonic Javelins ceased to meet modern requirements and were replaced by more advanced interceptors. Operation of the aircraft continued until 1968, with a total of 436 Javelins delivered to the RAF.
The analogue of the Gloster Javelin interceptor operated by the Royal Navy was de Havilland DH.110 Sea Vixen. The Sea Vixen, which entered service in 1958, was the first British interceptor fighter to have no built-in machine gun and cannon armament. The carrier-based interceptor had an archaic two-boom design inherited from the de Havilland Vampire and Venom fighters. Another feature was the radar operator's cab. Due to the fact that the AI.18 radar screen was very dim, the operator's seat was "sunk" entirely into the fuselage, covering the cockpit with an opaque cover to ensure minimal illumination, in fact, "walled up" the second crew member. For a side view, the operator was left with a small window, covered with a curtain.
Sea Vixen FAW.1
In the 50s, in the United States, air defense interceptors used volley-launched NARs as the main weapon of air defense interceptors. The Americans adopted this method of fighting bombers flying in a dense formation from the Luftwaffe. It was believed that in this way it was possible to destroy enemy bombers without entering the zone of effective fire of their defensive weapons. The British, too, did not escape the fascination with unguided rockets and the main weapon of the Sea Vixen was originally four 18 charging blocks of the 68-mm NAR SNEB. Subsequently, naval interceptors could carry on four hardpoints, guided Firestreak or Red Top missiles.
In comparison with the Javelins, the naval Sea Vixens were built much less - only 145 aircraft. But, despite the smaller volume of issue, their service proved to be longer. At the very end of the 60s, British subsonic interceptors with short-range missiles from the deck of the aircraft carriers HMS Eagle and Ark Royal displaced the supersonic Phantoms carrying medium-range missiles. However, the operation of the last British double-beam fighter-interceptors at coastal airfields continued until 1972.
However, in the UK, despite the developed aviation industry and vast experience in creating combat aircraft, until the end of the 50s of the last century there were no truly effective fighter-interceptors of their own capable of adequately withstanding Soviet long-range bombers. All British post-war fighters of the first generation were subsonic aircraft, focused mainly on solving strike missions or conducting close maneuverable air combat. Many aircraft, despite the archaic design characteristic of the 40s, were built in large series for a long time.
By the early 50s, it became clear to the RAF command that the existing fighter fleet was not able to protect the British Isles from raids by Soviet bombers, in addition, in the mid-50s, it was predicted that air-launched supersonic cruise missiles would appear in the USSR, which could be launched before the line interceptor actions. In these conditions, a supersonic fighter with a long range and good acceleration characteristics, with a powerful radar and homing missiles, was required. Simultaneously with the design of modern interceptors, work began on the creation of long-range anti-aircraft missiles and new types of radars.
