220 years ago, in March 1799, Suvorov's Italian campaign began. Combat operations of the united Russian-Austrian army under the command of Field Marshal A. V. Suvorov against French troops in Northern Italy.
This campaign was part of the war of the Second Anti-French Coalition of Britain, Austria, the Holy Roman Empire (its emperors were the Habsburgs who ruled in Austria), Russia, the Ottoman Empire, the Kingdom of Naples and Sweden against France. Russia formally waged a war with the aim of limiting the expansion of the sphere of influence of revolutionary France, in order to force France to peace, return to its former borders and restore lasting peace in Europe.
Background. The military-political situation in Europe
The French Revolution was an important event in European history and triggered a series of wars. Bourgeois England did not want to get in the person of France a strong competitor in Europe, which could unite around itself a significant part of Western Europe and challenge the British project of a "new world order". The British wanted to seize French colonies, foreign resources and markets. Other great Western European powers - Austria and Prussia did not want to give up their positions. France was Austria's traditional adversary. Therefore, at first, Austria wanted to take advantage of the turmoil in France, a favorable moment for territorial conquests, political and economic concessions from Paris. When France went on the offensive, Austria was already fighting for the preservation of its empire, for domination in Belgium, southern Germany and northern Italy. Other powers - Naples, Spain, Turkey - hoped to profit from the weakened great power.
The Russian Empress Catherine II took advantage of this situation to solve the age-old national problems of Russia. In words, she sharply criticized the French Revolution, agreed with the need to jointly oppose France and restore the monarchy there. Catherine dragged out the negotiations. In fact, Catherine was solving the problem of restoring the unity of Russia with the Western Russian lands (Partitions of the Commonwealth) and the issue of the Black Sea straits and Constantinople. The Russian Empire was supposed to solve the Polish question once and for all, establish borders in the western strategic direction, returning the previously lost lands of Western Russia. Make the Black Sea a "Russian lake" by annexing the straits and Constantinople-Constantinople, ensuring the protection of the southwestern borders of the empire for centuries.
While all the leading Western powers were bound by events in France, Russia in 1791 victoriously ended the war with Turkey. The Yassy Peace Treaty secured the entire Northern Black Sea region and the Crimean Peninsula for the Russian Empire, and strengthened its position on the Balkan Peninsula and the Caucasus. The lands between the Southern Bug and the Dniester were transferred to Russia. Russians found Tiraspol and Odessa, actively explore and develop the region. Catherine the Great plans to continue the offensive and solve the millennial task - to occupy Constantinople - Constantinople, the Black Sea straits. The political situation for this was very favorable - all the great powers of Europe were bound by the war with revolutionary France. France itself, which had a strong position in the Ottoman Empire, was also temporarily excluded from the Great Game.
Petersburg in 1792 entered into an alliance with Austria and Prussia against France, promised to deploy an auxiliary corps and help troops if the French crossed the Austrian or Prussian border. As a result, there was no one to protest against the Second Partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. In addition, England joined the anti-French alliance in 1793. Britain and Russia pledged to end trade with France and prevent other European states from trading with the French. This system of alliances allowed Russia to calmly settle the Polish question. Russia was reunited with the Western Russian lands, the Russian people were almost entirely within the borders of the Russian state.
During the 1792 campaign, the armies of Austria and Prussia did not achieve victory in the fight against France. In 1793, the war against revolutionary France flared up with renewed vigor. However, the French revolutionary army, which initially waged a just war, defending the fatherland, went on the offensive, began to beat the enemy. In 1794, the French not only pushed back the enemy troops from their land, but also captured Belgium and Holland.
In 1794, Russia defeated the Poles in the Second Polish War. In 1795, Russia, Austria and Prussia formalized the Third Section of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Polish state was liquidated. Also, the three great powers pledged to help each other in suppressing the revolutionary movement in Poland and to wage a joint struggle with France. At the same time, Russia and Austria signed a secret agreement on Turkey. Vienna agreed that in the event of a new military action by Ports against Russia, the Austrians would act together with the Russians. And after the defeat of the Ottoman Empire, present to the Sultan government as a condition of peace the creation of Dacia (from the Christian and Slavic regions of the Turkish Empire with the capital in Constantinople), which is in vassal dependence on Russia. Austria was to receive the Venetian region. Also, Russia and Austria entered into an alliance against Prussia if the Prussians attack the Austrians or Russians. Thus, Petersburg very skillfully and wisely used the war of the leading Western powers with France to solve age-old national problems.
In 1795, Spain, Prussia, and the North German principalities withdrew from the war with France. The South German principalities, Sardinia and Naples also tended to peace. Only England was firmly in favor of the war. London tried to organize a new campaign against Paris, this time with the help of Russia. England and Russia entered into a new anti-French alliance. The Russian Baltic Fleet was supposed to support the British in the North Sea. However, a new campaign in 1795 did not take place, since Austria did not dare to take active steps, limiting itself to a number of sluggish operations. At the end of 1795, Vienna signed an armistice with Paris.
The campaign of 1796 was unsuccessful for the Allies. Napoleon Bonaparte's army defeated the Austrians in Northern Italy. The Italian states of Modena, Parma and Naples stopped fighting the French. Austria was forced to withdraw from the war. The Russian fleet returned home from the North Sea. Catherine used this situation to finally resolve the Turkish issue. She promised Austria a subsidiary of 60,000. Russian army, but on the terms of action against the French Prussia and financial assistance from England. The army was to be led by A. Suvorov. It began to form in the south of Russia. At the same time, the Black Sea Fleet under the command of FF Ushakov was preparing for the campaign.
It should be noted that at the same time (in 1796) Russia established itself in the Transcaucasus. The Russian Caspian corps captured Derbent, Baku, Cuba, annexed the Shemakha and Sheki khanates. Russian troops entered the area of the confluence of the Kura and Araks rivers. After that, the possibility opened up of subjugating Northern Persia or striking Turkey.
Many circumstantial evidence suggests that Catherine "on the sly" was preparing to seize the straits - the Constantinople operation. The Black Sea Fleet under the command of Ushakov was supposed to land the landing army of Suvorov in the zone of the straits and capture Constantinople-Constantinople. Thus, the Russians closed the Black Sea from any potential enemy, solved the problem of entering the Mediterranean region, creating a strategic base and a bridgehead here - the straits and Constantinople. Christian and Slavic peoples of the Balkan Peninsula passed into the Russian sphere of influence. Russia led the process of creating a huge Slavic empire. However, this rush to Constantinople did not take place due to the death of Catherine II.
Pavel Petrovich's foreign policy
Paul I quite reasonably abandoned the war with France. Emperor Paul is one of the most maligned rulers in the Russian Empire (The myth of the "crazy emperor" Paul I; Knight on the throne). To hide the shameful story of his murder (with the active participation of the Russian aristocracy, who worked out British gold), they created a "black myth" about the foolish emperor, a madman on the throne, a tyrant, who exiled guard officers to Siberia only because of a bad mood and forbade people to wear French clothing. In reality, Paul was quite a reasonable statesman, a knight emperor, who tried to restore order in the country, restore discipline in the nobility, which disintegrated during the "golden age" of Catherine. The aristocrats did not forgive him for this. At the same time, Pavel eventually challenged Britain, realized the whole stupidity of confrontation with France, when Russian soldiers became "cannon fodder" fighting in the interests of Vienna and London.
Russia had no territorial, historical, economic or any other disputes with the French. There was not even a common border. France did not threaten Russia in any way. Moreover, it was beneficial for us that the leading powers of the West are tied to the war with France. Russia could calmly solve really important foreign policy tasks - consolidation in the Caucasus and the Caspian Sea, the Balkans, solving the issue of the Black Sea Straits. It was necessary to concentrate on the internal development of a huge empire.
Paul proposed to convene a congress in Leipzig to negotiate with France for the conclusion of an eternal peace. The congress did not take place, but the defeated Austria was forced to make peace with France in October 1797 at Campo Formio. True, the world was fragile, temporary. Both sides prepared for the continuation of hostilities.
Soon, however, Russia could be drawn into an unnecessary confrontation with France. Bourgeois France, like monarchist before, began to wage wars of conquest. The interests of the big bourgeoisie demanded the waging of war, the seizure and plunder of new lands, the creation of the French colonial empire. Initially, the main focus was on the Mediterranean Sea region. Napoleon's Italian campaign ended with the capture and plunder of Northern Italy. The French captured the Ionian Islands and established a foothold on the Adriatic coast, creating a bridgehead for further advance in the Balkans and an attack on Turkey. Next, Napoleon planned to capture Egypt, build the Suez Canal and thereby pave the way to India. It was also planned to occupy Palestine and Syria. Thus, Napoleon threatened not only the Ottoman Empire, but the British project of globalization (the creation of a world British empire).
Starting a campaign in Egypt, in the summer of 1798, the French captured Malta. Russian Emperor Paul was the Grand Master of the Order of Malta, that is, the island was formally under the protection of Russia. In addition, rumors appeared in St. Petersburg that the French were preparing a large fleet for the invasion of the Black Sea. In fact, the French were preparing the navy, but to fight the British, to support and supply Napoleon's army in Egypt. These rumors were misinformation.
As a result, the seizure of Malta by the French, rumors of a threat on the Black Sea, the intrigues of Vienna and London prompted Paul the First to get involved in the fight with France. Therefore, when Porta, frightened by the onslaught of the French in Egypt, asked for help from St. Petersburg, the Russian government decided to send a Black Sea squadron to the straits and the Mediterranean in order to create a strong barrier in case of an attack by the French fleet. The Second anti-French coalition also included England, Austria, Naples, Sweden.
Paul I wearing the crown, dalmatics and insignia of the Order of Malta. Artist V. L. Borovikovsky
Campaign plan
Russia initially pledged to send 65 thousand army for joint actions with Austria and England. Russia was to fight in three theaters: in Holland (together with the British), in Italy and Switzerland (together with the Austrians) and the Mediterranean (with the Turks and the British). General Rosenberg's 20,000th corps was sent to aid Austria for the fighting in Italy. Rimsky-Korsakov's 27,000-strong corps together with the 7,000-strong French émigré corps of Prince Condé (he was accepted into Russian service in 1797) first had to strengthen the Prussian army, fight on the Rhine, but Prussia refused to oppose France. Therefore, it was decided to send the Rimsky-Korsakov corps to Switzerland to reinforce the Austrian troops. 11-thousandth corps of General Hermann von Fersen was to fight along with the British in Holland.
In addition, 2 squadrons were sent for joint operations with the British fleet in the North Sea: the squadron of Vice Admiral Makarov (3 battleships and 3 frigates), left for the winter in England; and the squadron of Vice Admiral Khanykov (6 battleships and 4 frigates). For operations in the Mediterranean, ships of the Black Sea Fleet were sent under the command of Vice Admiral Ushakov (6 battleships, 7 frigates and several auxiliary ships). The Black Sea squadron was supposed to liberate the Ionian Islands, to act in southern Italy and to help the British in the liberation of Malta. Russia also formed two armies (Lasi and Gudovich) and a separate corps on the western border. Austria was supposed to exhibit 225 thousand people. England has its own fleet.
Due to the various strategic goals of the powers waging a war with France, the Allies did not have a common war plan. England was focused on the war on the sea - the North and Mediterranean Seas, the capture of French and Dutch ships, French colonies. The British tried to defeat the French forces in the Mediterranean basin, capture their strategic bases - Malta, the Ionian Islands, drive the French out of Holland. Austria, planning to seize Belgium, the southern German principalities and Northern Italy, accordingly concentrated its main forces here. The main theater was the North Italian, and Vienna demanded to send all Russian forces here.
France had a 230,000 army, but it was scattered on a huge front. Napoleon's army fought in Egypt. MacDonald's 34,000-strong army was stationed in southern Italy; in Northern Italy, Scherer's 58,000-strong army and 25,000 soldiers were garrisoned in fortresses; in Switzerland - Massena's 48,000-strong army; on the Rhine - the 37,000th army of Jourdan and the 8,000th corps of Bernadotte; in the Netherlands - Brune's 27,000 army.
While the Allies were preparing for hostilities, the troops of the French Republic went on the offensive and defeated the Austrians, occupying almost all of Switzerland and northern Italy. The commander of the Italian army, Scherer, began to move troops to the borders of Austria, and then took up defenses on the Adda River.
The fighting was going on in the Mediterranean. Napoleon captured Egypt and was going to go to Syria. However, the British destroyed the French fleet and cut the enemy's supply lines. Napoleon's troops were cut off, but continued to fight, holding down the forces of the Ottoman Empire and the British fleet. In 1798, the Russian squadron of Ushakov liberated the Ionian Islands from the French and laid siege to their main fortress in Corfu. In March 1799, Corfu was taken by storm (How the Russians took the impregnable fortress of Corfu; Part 2). During the cruise of Ushakov's ships, it became clear that the appearance of the Russian fleet in the Mediterranean irritated Russia's "partners" - Austria and England. The Austrians and the British themselves wanted to establish themselves in the Ionian Islands, the British roamed to Corfu and Malta. Ushakov, who quickly figured out such a "friendship" of the allies, wrote to St. Petersburg that the Westerners are trying to "split us off from all our real business and … force us to catch flies, and so that they instead enter the places from which they are trying to separate us …"
A. V. Suvorov-Rymniksky. Unknown painter. Second half of the 18th century
