Doubt gives me no less pleasure than knowledge.
Dante Alighieri
The south of Italy and Sicily were politically and to some extent culturally separated from the rest of the country during the period under review. Sicily remained under Islamic rule for a long time, and the southern part of the peninsula was under the rule of Byzantium. That is, initially, military affairs in these territories developed in line with the Muslim and Byzantine military culture. However, everything changed after the Norman conquest of southern Italy and Sicily in 1076 and 1088, after which the region could be considered as a whole.
Naples was not officially captured until 1140, but for many years it was also effectively dominated by the Normans. Moreover, this unification happened despite significant cultural differences between the former Islamic Sicily, the former Byzantine Calabria, Apulia, Gaeta, Naples and Amalfi, as well as the former Lombardy Salerno, Benevento and Capua. True, the culture of the south experienced a strong shock after the political separation of Sicily from the south of Italy, which followed the famous "Sicilian Vespers" in 1282. And the two regions were not reunited until 1442. However, it will be more logical, nevertheless, to consider the military history of the South of Italy precisely in the aggregate.
"Battle of Benevento" (1266). Guelphs against Ghibellines *. Miniature from "New Chronicle", 1348 "Vatican Apostolic Library, Rome)
Well, we must start with the fact that the duchies of Lombardy, which ruled the lands of southern Italy before the conquest by the Normans, had their own special military culture, dating back to Byzantine, early medieval Germanic and even late Roman prototypes. Military service here was a purely personal matter, not related to land ownership. And the local aristocracy lived in cities or towns, but not in country castles, like the elite of Northern Europe. It is believed that the Lombards who conquered Italy were not very good horsemen, but this does not mean that there were no cavalry here at all. When the Normans arrived here, they were faced with the fact that in Naples, and in Bari, and, possibly, in other cities, the class of militia (that is, professional warriors) already existed. That is, there were already their own warriors, quite similar to the knights, although, perhaps, without castles. In the cities there were also militia military formations from the townspeople.
The Battle of Montaperti (1260) by Pacino di Buonagvida. Miniature from "New Chronicle", 1348 ("Vatican Apostolic Library, Rome)
Tolerance of Gentiles and Muslim Warriors
As for Sicily, in the XII century it was a truly unique kingdom with a diverse religious composition, in which Catholics, Orthodox Christians, and even Muslims living in the southern part of the island coexisted relatively harmoniously. There was also a place here for Jews who traditionally engaged in trade. During the reign of King Roger II, these communities enjoyed unprecedented rights in what was then Christian Europe. Jews and Muslims were allowed to freely perform their rites, and official documents were written in Latin, Greek, and Arabic. This tolerance towards Jews and Muslims has developed under the influence of a multinational multicultural environment. So the traditions of multiculturalism and tolerance in Europe were not born yesterday, as some of us believe.
Moreover, not all of the rulers of that time were religious fanatics and murderers. Frederick II Hohenstaufen, for example, suppressed the Muslim uprising in Sicily, instead of exterminating the local Muslim population without exception, he deported 20,000 Muslims to Lucera, and another 30,000 to other cities. It is not surprising that with such an attitude towards them, Muslim communities here flourished. And they did not just prosper, but on a regular basis provided Frederick with their soldiers, as well as agricultural products (for example, honey), and paid considerable taxes.
In accordance with the so-called Melfi Constitution of 1231, he completely abolished the independence of large feudal lords: he forbade them to wage internecine wars, as well as build castles and administer justice. At the same time, the cities were also deprived of self-government. There was now a single royal court in the country for all estates. According to Frederick, "the spirit of the laws is determined not by divine 'hordes', but by 'evidence' from witnesses and 'documents'." In the military field, his reforms were especially significant. He created a strong fleet, and the feudal army was replaced by a standing army of Saracen mercenaries.
It was from the Saracens, including a native of Sicily, that Frederick recruited his personal bodyguards. At the same time, the Muslims served the emperor not for fear, but for conscience, and the Muslim rulers spoke of him in the highest degree favorably. Frederick's laws were such that Jews and Muslims were equally protected by royal authority. Although the payment for a murdered Christian, whose murderer was never found, for the inhabitants of the area where the murder was committed was 100 augustals, but for a Muslim or a Jew, only 50 had to be paid! Nevertheless, for the European Middle Ages this was a real "breakthrough" into the future **!
However, this tolerance for the Gentiles still had its limits. That is, the gates of the kingdom were not open to everyone. Non-religious foreigners who wished to live in the Kingdom of Sicily were required to obtain special permission for this. Moreover, it was given only to those who … were devoted to the emperor and expressed their willingness to live in his lands permanently. An important condition for single men was marriage with a resident of the kingdom, but without a fief. In addition, these people were prohibited from holding any public office. Foreign Christians were given the right to occupy them, but even if they came from the regions of Italy adjacent to the kingdom and lived in it for some time, in order to occupy them, a surety from respected local residents was required. However, all this did not apply to military service. That is, a healthy young man could always be hired for military service, and if he was also a masterful master of weapons, then … he could count on a good career.
Knights of the South of Italy, XIII century. Rice. Angus McBride
As already noted, the military culture of Sicily was largely associated with the Islamic influence of North Africa, from where, by the way, many Arab or Berber migrants moved here, becoming mercenaries here. They gradually converted to Christianity and were absorbed by the local population. It should also be remembered that coastal cities such as Amalfi continued to have very close political and commercial ties with the Islamic world. On the other hand, it is possible that the Christian community of Islamic Sicily also retained a certain military role. Thus, although these lands were conquered by the Normans, who began to create military squads in the image and likeness of squads in the North of Europe, the protection of local provinces was still carried out by local troops, that is, urban and even rural militia.
Miniature from "The Novel of Troy", 1340-1360. Bologna, Italy (National Library of Austria, Vienna)
A similar miniature from the French manuscript "Mirror of History", 1335 (National Library of France, Paris). As you can see, both horse blankets of practically the same cut and the appearance of the armor are all the same, and this once again confirms the international character of Western European knighthood for centuries.
Although the Normans naturally played a dominant role in the Norman conquest of southern Italy and Sicily, northern warriors from other regions also came here. Among them were Bretons, Flemings, Poitouvinians, and people from the counties of Anjou and Maine. But their "military style" and tactics were almost identical to those of the same Normans. Well, after their conquest of local lands, of course, there was a significant feudalization of the countryside, garrisons were placed in the cities, subordinate to the conquerors. Theoretically, here the entire male population took part in military affairs in one way or another, but in fact, its minority could still be called up under arms.
Miniature from "The Novel of Troy", 1340-1350. Venice, Italy (National Library of France, Paris). "The Novel of Three" is a very popular "edition" of pre-press times and was replicated several times at different times, in different cities and designed by different artists. In this miniature, we see the soldiers of the Italian city militia.
"Padua Bible" 1400 Padua, Italy. (British Library, London) This miniature is interesting because on it we see the soldiers of the Italian city militia half a century after the appearance of the previous book. The armor of the militia is clearly more complex, but the daggers remain the same. The shields have not changed either!
A special role was played by the Muslim warriors, who in some respects were the most loyal and reliable troops of the Norman army, and in addition one of the most effective. First of all, it was cavalry, lighter than knightly, whose soldiers were armed with bows and arrows, as well as infantry, the most famous of which, again, were archers. Normans, Italians, Greeks, and other Christian communities probably provided the bulk of the armed forces, which included cavalry and infantry, and to which members of the feudal nobility were recruited. This also included urban militias and northern Italian mercenaries.
According to such an English historian as David Nicole, the important role of the Italian troops, both in the initial stage of the conquest and in the subsequent Italo-Norman armies, was recognized only recently. Well, mercenaries from these and other southern Italian lands already during the XII century began to play an increasingly important role in other European countries. Moreover, unlike the militias of northern Italy, who were mostly serfs, the “militiamen” of the South were free people.
A beautiful image of a knight on a page from "An appeal in verse to Robert of Anjou, king of Naples, from the city of Prato in Tuscany" ("Regia Carmina"). Illustrator Pacino di Buonaguida, based in Florence, c. 1300 - 1350 The book dates from 1335-1340. (British Library, London)
The subsequent wars of Frederick II had little effect on the military structure created by the Normans. True, the role of Sicilian Muslims in Christian troops at the end of the 13th century has greatly diminished. At the same time, a number of interesting technical developments in weapons and armor appeared precisely in southern Italy, and from here they spread to its central and northern regions.
Another image of a knight from the same manuscript and by the same artist. The girl on the left represents Precaution. The warrior on the right is Justice. On his shield, the Latin inscription "Lex", that is, "Law". (British Library, London)
Its enlarged image clearly shows leather leg armor with embossed leather, metal discs on the elbows and a brigandine lined with metal plates, worn over chain mail. On it we see gilded rivet heads. A chapel-de-fer (that is, an "iron hat") helmet, comfortable in hot climates, complements his equipment. The shield in the form of an "inverted drop" is clearly of the Byzantine design. On the right on the belt there is a basilard dagger with a bone handle.
It is believed that many of them clearly reflect Islamic or Byzantine influence, although it is difficult to say what it was: the influence of Sicilian Muslims or Muslims from the African continent or those who lived in Palestine or Syria. For example, this applies to the use of relatively short stabbing swords and large daggers in the 13th century, both by horse archers from a bow and crossbow, and by infantry, and even knights. Another feature was the widespread use of overhead "armor" made of hardened, "boiled leather" at the beginning and middle of the 14th century.
* The confrontation between Guelphs and Ghibellines will be discussed in one of the following articles.
** The level of economic and social development of Italy at this time is evidenced, for example, by the following facts: the first strike of hired workers in history took place in Florence as early as 1345, and in 1378 there was an uprising of Chompi clothmakers under the slogan “Long live the people and workshops! And what was happening in Russia at that very time? Dmitry Donskoy won a victory on the Vozha River … And no one has even heard of any workshops!
References:
1. Nicolle, D. Italian Medieval Armies 1000-1300. Oxford: Osprey (Men-at-Arms # 376), 2002.
2. Nicolle, D. Arms and Armor of the Crusading Era, 1050-1350. UK. L.: Greenhill Books. Vol. 1, 1999.
3. Nicolle, D. Italian Militiaman 1260-1392. Oxford: Osprey (Warrior # 25), 1995.
4. Nicolle D. Italian Medieval Armies 1300 - 1500. L.: Osprey (Men-at-arms series No. 136), 1983.
5. Verbruggen J. F. The Art of Warfare in Western Europe during the Middle Ages from the Eight Century to 1340. Amsterdam - N. Y. Oxford, 1977.
6. Backhouse, Janet. The Illuminated Page: Ten Centuries of Manuscript Painting in the British Library. Canada, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1997.
7. Gravett, K., Nicole, D. Normans. Knights and conquerors (Translated from English A. Kolin) M.: Eksmo, 2007.
