The laws of history are unforgiving, collapse and decay await all the great empires of the world. But even against this background, the unusually rapid collapse of the empire created by Alexander the Great is striking.
Alexander the Great. Bust. Archaeological Museum, Istanbul
Great states arise when peoples at the stage of ascent are headed by extraordinary (passionate, as defined by Lev Gumilyov), individuals capable of super-efforts, who surround themselves with people with similar qualities. Even after the death of the sovereign, the will of these people, like a rigid hoop, fetters the disparate pieces of empires into a single whole. This was the way Rome and Byzantium were, which, even having entered the phase of obscuration, for some time managed to draw passionarity among the neighboring peoples. A vandal by origin Stilicho defeated the Visigoths led by Alaric. The last great commander of Rome - Aetius, who stopped Attila himself, was half German, but, after Procopius, we call him “the last Roman”, and L. Gumilev considered him “the first Byzantine”. When the vitality of the descendants of Genghis Khan dried up, the banner of the great conqueror was picked up by rootless temniks, and if Mamai failed in this field and died, then the iron Timur shook half of the universe with his conquests and died at the zenith of glory and power. Alexander, too, was by no means the only passionate person in Macedonia: a whole galaxy of brilliant and loyal generals was quite capable, if not to continue the conquest of the world, then at least for some time to protect the state he created from disintegration. The Macedonian army was the best in the world and as strategists Antipater, Antigonus, Perdiccas and others did not have worthy opponents outside the borders of the power created by Alexander. What is the reason for the fall of the empire? In this case, we have a unique illustration of the position that not only the lack of passionaries, but also their excessive number are fatal for the state. Personally, Alexander's commanders were, of course, unconditionally loyal, but voluntarily submitting to any of their rivals was beyond the power of any of them.
Having reigned for only 13 years, Alexander, distinguished by excellent health, unexpectedly and suddenly died at the age of 33 in June 323 BC.
Dying Alexander (unknown sculptor)
Legend claims that during a feast, the military leader Kassander secretly poured water from the Styx into his wine - in one place in Greece, this river allegedly came to the surface. This poison was transported to Babylon either by Aristotle himself, or by one of his disciples (as revenge for the death of the philosopher Callisthenes). It was believed that Styx water eats away everything - even iron and stone, so it was delivered in a goat's hoof. Cassander certainly had reasons for hatred of Alexander: it was quite difficult for him to forget how the king beat his head against the wall when he arrived as an ambassador to him from his father Antipater (brought up in Hellenistic traditions, the young man allowed himself to laugh at the sight of the courtiers falling at Alexander's feet). This is how Oliver Stone saw this episode in the film "Alexander" (2004):
Since then, Cassander was so afraid of Alexander that, many years later, already king of Macedonia and subjugating Hellas, he almost fainted at the sight of his statue in Delphi.
Cassander
But in fact, doctors who have acted as experts on this issue have long come to the conclusion that the symptoms of Alexander's disease are most similar to those characteristic of "West Nile fever." This disease is quite common in Africa, West Asia and the Middle East. Birds and animals are carriers of the virus, mosquitoes are carriers. This virus gained worldwide fame in 1999 after it was introduced to the United States.
When the dying Alexander was asked: "To whom do you leave the kingdom?", He whispered: "To the most worthy." And to the question: "Who will be the grave sacrifice over you?" answered: "You."
The answers are simply amazing: the great conqueror directly pushes his commanders to "compete" for the title of "first after God", that is, himself. Not fed up with blood, Ares demands the continuation of the feast through the lips of his beloved hero. And the situation was already incredibly difficult and extremely confusing: after the death of Alexander, there were no members of the royal family left whom the generals would agree to obey. The male offspring of a kind were destroyed by Alexander himself immediately after his accession to the throne. Heracles was alive - the illegitimate son of Barsina, the daughter of the Persian exile Artabaz (with whom Alexander had known since childhood). Barsina was twice a widow - the commanders of the Greek mercenaries of Persia Mentor and Memnon, she was inseparably with the king of Macedonia until he met Roxane. Another contender was Philip II's feeble-minded son Arrideus, also illegitimate. In addition, Alexander's wife Roxana was five months pregnant. And under such circumstances, Alexander himself refuses to name his successor, or at least the regent! Until recently, loyal comrades-in-arms and comrades tested in dozens of battles rushed to divide kingdoms and provinces. The body of the most powerful monarch of the Ecumene was left without burial for thirty days, it survived only because one of the servants had the idea to pour honey on it. It is not a lack of due respect: the burial ceremony of the king was to be organized and carried out by his successor (in Greek - diadoch). There were many who wanted to carry out this ceremony - too many for one Alexander. As a result, Perdiccas was hardly recognized as the first among equals, to whom Alexander handed over his ring with a seal. The situation became even more aggravated after receiving a prophecy about the great future of the country in which the remains of Alexander will rest. After fierce disputes that lasted a whole year, the body of the conqueror, immersed in a sarcophagus with honey, was sent to Macedonia (and the city of Pella). However, Ptolemy intercepted him en route.
Ptolemy I Soter
The select units of Perdiccas, the color of the Macedonian army, the best of the best, were thrown in pursuit of the kidnappers - and to motivate the veterans now it was not necessary to speak long pathetic speeches, or to promise a precious reward. But Ptolemy deceived everyone by organizing a brilliant cover operation: he exposed a false caravan with a large guard under attack, while a small detachment with Alexander's body went to Egypt by a different road - quietly and unnoticed. After a fierce battle with the people of Ptolemy (who were confident in their high mission and were not going to give in), the soldiers of Perdiccas got a skillfully made doll. And Ptolemy, having obtained the body of Alexander, began to claim the title of the first of the diadochi. And for twenty years bloody battles on the territory of Alexander's empire did not subside - there were four wars of the Diadochi, and between the third and fourth there was also the Babylonian War (between Antigonus and Seleucus). The situation was complicated by the arbitrariness of the veterans of the Macedonian army, not to obey whose decision it was impossible for any of these rulers.
"The famous phalanx of Alexander the Great, which passed Asia and defeated the Persians, accustomed to fame and self-will, did not want to obey the leaders, but sought to command them, as our veterans do now,"
- lamented on this occasion the Roman historian Cornelius Nepos.
Having divided the state among themselves, Alexander's generals declared themselves strategists-autocraters (generals-autocrats) of a single power. Most researchers agree that 12 people can be named as such:
It could have been 15, but the most experienced commander Parmenion, who during the Asian campaign invariably commanded the left flank of the Macedonian army (the containment flank that took on the blows of the elite units of the enemy's right wing), and his son Filota, the commander of the horse guards of the Getaira, were killed by order of Alexander. Alexander personally killed Klit, who saved the tsar in a battle on the Granik River, the brother of his nanny, the commander of the agema - an elite squadron of hetaira. You can also remember Hephaestion, who, undoubtedly, would have been appointed regent if he had not died before Alexander's death. But this appointment would not have changed absolutely nothing in further events: "comrades in arms" and "loyal companions-in-arms" would have devoured Alexander's pet, who did not have much authority in the army, even earlier than Perdikku.
Of those who took part in the partition of Alexander's empire, only three died in their own bed: Antipater, Cassander and Ptolemy (the circumstances and exact date of Polyperchon's death are unknown, but, most likely, he, having lived to 90 years old, died of old age). They tried to preserve the appearance of the unity of the diadochi, making Philip Arrideus, the feeble-minded son of Philip the Great and an obscure dancer (the choice of the Macedonian army) and Alexander IV, the newborn son of Alexander (the choice of the diadochi), as kings, during the regency of the commander Perdiccas.
Distribution of satrapies by Perdiccas
The first partition of the empire did not suit anyone, and the borders began to collapse literally in front of the shocked contemporaries.
The kingdom of the Diadochi in 315 BC
In Europe, the elderly, but very authoritative commander Antipater was recognized as the regent of the royal house, to whom the most popular, after Alexander himself, among the soldiers, the commander, Crater, joined.
Antipater
Crater in O. Stone's film "Alexander", 2004
But already in 321 BC. Ptolemy, son of Lagus, the one who captured Alexander's body and buried it in Alexandria, refused to submit to Perdiccas. Antipater and Cassander also opposed the chiliarch of Asia, but their blow was successfully repelled by the former secretary of Philip and Alexander Eumenes, who now proved to be an outstanding commander.
Eumenes
Having won a victory over the satrap of Armenia Neoptolemus (in Alexander's army - the commander of the shield-bearers), who was in his subordination, but went over to the side of the enemies, Eumenes then had to fight with the beloved commander of the Macedonian army, the idol of the veterans Alexander and his friend - Crater. Confident that the Macedonians would not fight against him, Crater went to this battle without a helmet. But Eumenes sent Asian horsemen against the Crater, one of whom inflicted a mortal wound on him. Neoptolemus, who joined the Crater in that battle, found his death in a duel with Eumenes. Plutarch's description of this battle, worthy of a heroic poem, has survived:
“With terrible force, like triremes, both released the reins from their hands and, clutching each other, began to pull off the helmet from the enemy and break the armor on their shoulders. During this fight, both horses slipped out from under their riders and ran away, and the riders, falling to the ground, continued their fierce struggle. Neoptolemus tried to get up, but Eumenes broke his knee and jumped to his feet. Leaning on a healthy knee, and not paying attention to the injured one, Neoptolemus desperately defended himself, but his blows were harmless, and, finally, struck in the neck, he fell and stretched out on the ground. All in the power of anger and ancient hatred, Eumenes began to rip off his armor with curses, but the dying man unnoticed slipped his sword, which he still held in his hand, under Eumenes's shell and wounded him in the groin, where the armor did not fit tightly to the body. The blow delivered by the weakening hand was harmless and frightened Eumenes more than hurt him."
Considered invincible, the Macedonian army of Craterus (which included more than 11,000 of Alexander's veterans!) Was completely defeated.
But Perdiccas, who went on a campaign to Egypt, was killed in 321 BC. in his tent after an unsuccessful crossing of the Nile (then about 2,000 soldiers drowned). The conspiracy was led by Python and Seleucus. The help that Ptolemy provided to the Macedonians of Perdiccas' army who were in adversity made such an impression on everyone that he was invited to become the regent of the empire and the chiliarch of Asia. However, Ptolemy, apparently, knew his former comrades-diadochs very well in order to build illusions about the possibility of preserving the state of Alexander. The "bird in hand" in the form of a stable and self-sufficient Egypt seemed to him dearer than the "crane" of a crumbling empire. Python was appointed temporary regent, in this post he was soon replaced by the strategist of Europe Antipater, who now became the sole ruler of the state. After his death in 319 BC, the main defender of the dynasty was the already familiar Eumenes, who, due to his origin (recall that he was a Greek, not a Macedonian), the only diadochi, could not claim the royal throne and therefore was not interested in the elimination of Alexander's heirs. The old associates of Philip and Alexander did not like Eumenes and did not forgive him for the death of Crater, popular in the army. Eumenes was sentenced to death in absentia, the strategist of Asia Antigonus One-Eyed sent a large army against him, which could neither take by storm the Phrygian fortress Nora, in which Eumenes had taken refuge, nor prevent his retreat from it. Olympias, who came to power in Macedonia, appointed Eumenes as the strategist of Asia; he was supported by the governors of the Indian and Central Asian provinces. Antigonus suffered a series of defeats, but during the last battle (in Susiana), thanks to the betrayal of the satrap of Persis, Pevkest, he managed to capture Eumenes' wagon train. And, who did not suffer a single defeat on the battlefield, Eumenes was betrayed by his warriors-argyrospeeds - they simply exchanged their commander for a wagon train captured by the enemy.
Meanwhile, Olympias (317 BC), summoned by Polyperchon to Macedonia, ordered the assassination of Arrideus (his wife Eurydice was ordered to hang herself, which she did, wishing Olympias the same fate) and unleashed a campaign of terror against noble Macedonian families, first of all, against the family of the hated Antipater.
Olympias, mother of Alexander
Taking advantage of the general discontent, Cassander conquered Macedonia, captured Olympias, which, thanks to his efforts, was sentenced to death by the army assembly. There were problems with Olympiada: Cassandra really wanted to get rid of her, but he did not want to be called the killer of the mother of the great Alexander. He invited her to run away - the proud queen refused. Nevertheless, they had to send the executioners to her, but those, seeing Olympias in full royal vestments, did not dare to carry out the order. Then the relatives of the people who were executed were sent to her by her order: Olympiada was stoned. And all the moral barriers collapsed in one hour: Cassander began to destroy the memory of the former idol - Alexander in Macedonia. Soon, on his order, Roxana and her son, already deprived of all royal privileges, were actually taken into custody, in the position of captives they were in the city of Amphipolis. During the III War of the Diadochi, Antigonus demanded to restore his son Alexander to the throne, hoping, thus, to cause unrest in Macedonia. But this did not affect the fate of the young tsar in any way. Meanwhile, the Macedonians increasingly began to turn to Cassander with questions about when he would finally return Alexander IV to the court so that the future king would begin to join the government. And these questions were very unnerving for Cassandra, and the rest of the Diadochi, who back in 306 BC. declared themselves kings and began to mint coins with their portraits (until that time, Alexander the Great was depicted on the coins of the Diadochi). Cassander did not want to cede the throne, other diadochi woke up at night in cold sweat when they had nightmares about the son of the great Alexander in the crown of the legitimate king of Macedonia. When Alexander IV was 14 years old (310 BC), Cassander ordered to poison him and Roxanne: mother and son were buried secretly, and in Macedonia they did not immediately learn about their death. And in 309 BC. by order of Polyperchon, Barsina and Hercules were killed. This was a huge mistake for Polyperchon: he had an excellent chance of winning in Macedonia - no one, not even Cassander, who doubted the loyalty of his soldiers (who suspected that Roxanne and Alexander IV died not without his help) dared to oppose him while he was near the last son of the great Alexander. But the aged commander was flattered by Cassander's promise to support him in the Peloponnese. Satisfied with his compliance, Cassander did everything so that Macedonia and Greece knew about this murder: the reputation of Polyperchon was severely damaged, the diadochus left the historical stage, he still controlled 2 cities (Corinth and Sikion), without even thinking about more. The last mention of him dates back to 303 BC, there is no clear information about the place and time of his death. We add that two sisters of Alexander were also killed: Cleopatra - by order of Antigonus, Thessalonica (became the wife of Cassandra, from her name the city of Thessaloniki was named) - was killed by her own son. Such was the end of the Macedonian dynasty of the Argeads.
And outside Macedonia, meanwhile, in an internecine war, fighting against Seleucus and Lysimachus, Antigonus One-Eyed (301 BC) died in the battle of Ipsus.
Antigonus One-Eyed
In this battle (on the side of Antigonus), for the first time, a little-known young king of Epirus took part in hostilities, who would become the first of the great opponents of Rome, but he will be discussed in the next article.
Translated into Russian, his name means "Fiery" or "Red". Monument in the Greek city of Arta
There were still four diadochi alive - too many for Alexander's long-suffering empire. They have now divided the provinces as follows:
The son of Antigonus Demetrius, who put the cavalry of Seleucus to flight, but, carried away by the pursuit, was cut off by the enemy's elephants from the phalanx of his father (which was the reason for the defeat), was left without a kingdom.
Demetrius Poliorketes
He fought tirelessly in different countries, earning the nickname "Poliorket" ("Besieger of the city"). Agree, the nickname of the heir to the diadochus Antigonus is much more pretentious and much more decent than that of the heir to the diadochus Ptolemy - "Loving sister" (Philadelphus), and "loving" is by no means platonic. And immediately everyone understands who approached the border: a great warrior or …
In 285 BC. the strength and luck of Demetrius dried up, in Asia Minor he suffered the last defeat, surrendered to Seleucus and in 283 BC. died in prison in Syria. But his son Antigonus Gonatus (from the city of Gonna) will nevertheless become the king of Macedonia. The fate of the sons of Kassandra, who actually destroyed the Macedonian dynasty of the Argeads, Kassandra (through his fault his mother, two wives and two sons of Alexander died) was both terrible and pitiful. The eldest, Antipater, who killed his mother (the sister of Alexander the Great: the family tradition, apparently, is to kill one of the relatives of the great king), was expelled from the country by Pyrrhus, who was summoned to help by his younger son, Alexander, who later divided Macedonia with him. Alexander's mistake was also turning to Demetrius Poliorketus. Demetrius was a little late, but nevertheless he came, looked gloomily at the contented Alexander, and told him that "the challenge must be paid," and in general, what kind of things are: "Where is my half of our kingdom?" Confident that all his problems were behind him, the son of Cassandra advised the diadochus to "hold on", wished "more health and good mood", and, as compensation, invited him to a feast. On which Demetrius stabbed Alexander. Pyrrhus, whose sister was married to Demetrios, advised the somewhat discouraged Macedonians not to worry about trifles. Indeed, what are the problems? Do you need a king? So here he is, already there - Demetrius, also a Macedonian, from a respected family, and neither he nor his dad killed any of the relatives of the former king, live and rejoice. In general, a typical raider takeover in the style of our 90s, but not a business, hired as a "roof", the bandits "squeezed", but the kingdom. And not bandits, but the great heroes of Antiquity, whose lives and exploits are devoted to thousands of pages of chronicles, monographs, historical novels. It happened in 294 BC. However, Pyrrhus and Demetrius were not allies for long, very soon they began a war in which their armies missed each other and, as a result, each of them won: Demetrius in Epirus, Pyrrhus in Macedonia. Later, Lysimachus, Ptolemy and Pyrrhus, united against Demetrius, forced him to flee from Macedonia. After which Lysimachus and Pyrrhus also advised them to leave this country as soon as possible.
In the end, the winners in the confrontation between the diadochs were Ptolemy, who established himself in Egypt, Seleucus (who repeated Alexander's campaign to India and received 480 elephants from the Indian king Chandragupta) and Lysimachus (who once fell in love with Alexander for defeating the lion with his bare hands). After the death of Ptolemy, Lysimachus and Seleucus entered into the last battle - probably because, as in the famous film, there was only one left.
Lysimachus, bust, Naples Archeology Museum
Seleucus I Nicator
As a result, not one was left alive.
So, in 283 BC. Ptolemy Lag died in Alexandria, Demetrius in prison (Apamea, Syria), and 70-year-old Lysimachus and 80-year-old Seleucus took a personal part in the Battle of Curupedion (Syria). Lysimachus fell in battle, his soldiers went over to Seleucus (because he was now the only living companion of Alexander). Macedonia also agreed to recognize the power of Seleucus, and it seemed that now everything on the territory of the empire would be calm and good. What is there! To his misfortune, he received at his court Ptolemy Keravnos (Lightning), the son of Ptolemy I, the grandson of Antipater, who had fled from his younger brother, who inherited the throne of his father. On the way to Macedonia, Seleucus was cunningly killed by Keravnes. In the war that followed for the long-suffering Macedonia, Ptolemy defeated the son of Demetrius - Antigonus, but he himself soon died in a battle with the Galatians: he fell from a war elephant and was captured. His severed head was planted by the Galatians on a spear and worn to intimidate enemies. For Macedonia, the result was very sad: the country lost a huge number of young healthy men and received nothing in return. All representatives of the great Argead dynasty that had a chance to become, including the sons of Alexander himself, were destroyed. Greece was again fragmented into tiny city-states. But on the eastern and southern coasts of the Mediterranean Sea - in Egypt, Syria, Asia Minor - Hellenistic states arose, the top of which was made up of immigrants from Macedonia and Greek mercenaries from the army of Alexander. The wars of the Diadochi ended, replaced by the wars of their descendants and epigones. The Seleucids, Ptolemies, Antigonids and other dynasties fought hard and stubborn wars for a long time until they were absorbed by the Roman Empire.
