Already in ancient times, namely in the Paleolithic era, people developed three groups of mystical beliefs that entered all the main religions of the world - animism, totemism and magic. "My soul sings!" - this is animism, the names Volkov, Sinitsyn, Kobylin - totemism, but the well-known student "freebie come" is typical, albeit very primitive magic. Well, and to live in a complex world of spirits and gods, the ceremonial helped people. Holidays in honor of the gods and goddesses were supposed to appease them. Victims, sometimes bloody - to feed. And, of course, all these ceremonies also had a strong effect on the "common people", instilled in him humility or, on the contrary, made him rejoice when the powers that be demanded it.
It is very important for historians that in the era of the empire, the Roman emperors not only arranged triumphs for themselves, but also began to build triumphal arches in honor of their victories and decorate them with bas-reliefs telling about these victories. Here, for example, is one such bas-relief from the triumphal arch of Emperor Constantine in Rome. It shows the equipment of the Roman warriors of this time with exceptional accuracy, including the trousers of the bracque. The extreme left legionnaire is especially interesting. He is wearing an armor of metal scales with a scalloped hem and for some reason is so short that it barely covers his "causal place." His helmet, shield and sword in a sling on the right are clearly visible.
Ceremonials played a special role in the war. All sorts of oaths on the sword, on blood, kissing banners and standards were supposed to symbolize a kind of "covenant" with both the patron gods and the fathers-commanders, whose power over the souls and bodies of their soldiers was illuminated by divine authority. The more complicated a society is, the more complicated its ceremonies, as a rule, were. In the Ancient World, a Roman ceremony associated with the celebration of victory reached the top. Here, the veneration of the gods, who granted victory to Roman weapons, and the glorification of the soldiers who obtained it, and the public reward to the commander for everything he did for the greatness of Rome, merged into one whole.
Column of Constantine. It is surrounded by a fence, and you cannot get closer to it. Well, the upper bas-reliefs can only be removed with a quadcopter.
All this found its embodiment in triumphs - festive processions dedicated to the victories of the Roman army upon his return home. At first, everything was quite simple: when entering the city, the soldiers went to the temple and brought thanks to the gods for giving them victory, and sacrificed a part of the captured booty to them. But then the triumphs turned into grandiose processions (and many centuries later, when Rome fell long ago, into no less grandiose military parades with the passage of troops, tanks and missiles).
Arch of Emperor Trajan in Benevento, Italy.
But if at the beginning the holiday was the return of any army to Rome. Then over time, the triumph became a kind of distinction and was allowed under a number of conditions. Triumph began to be considered the highest award for a military leader, which he could only receive if he had the Senate rod - imperium (lat. - power), which endowed him with the broadest powers, and waged war, not submitting to the authority of another commander. However, Roman democracy made it possible to award triumphs to ordinary officials (consuls, praetors, proconsuls and propraetors), it could be received by the dictator and those who were granted supreme power (imperium extraordinarium) by a special decree of the popular assembly. Usually the Senate decided to be or not to be a triumph. But sometimes, if he refused a military leader in triumph, he could get it by contacting the national assembly. This happened, for example, in the case of Marcius Rutilus (the first of the plebeians who became a dictator and won a triumph in Rome).
Arch of Emperor Trajan at Canossa.
The triumph was given to the commander only when the war was over (although, as always, there were exceptions). In addition, the very victory in it had to be accompanied by a battle, which would lead to heavy losses in the enemy troops. The rule was this: to give triumph only if at least five thousand enemy soldiers are killed in it.
The commander, who wanted to get a triumph, had to send a “application” to the Senate and wait for its decision, being certainly outside the city limits, since the entry into the city of an official who had not resigned his imperium was in no way permitted. Senators also held a meeting on the Champ de Mars, that is, outside the city limits, in the temple of the goddess Bellona or the god Apollo, where they considered the request of their commander to give him a triumph. On the day when the triumph was appointed, all its participants had to gather in the early morning on the Champ de Mars, where the triumphant arrived in one of the public buildings (villa publica), dressed in luxurious clothes. Interestingly, in his attire, he resembled the figure of Capitol Jupiter - a statue on Capitol Hill. This "costume" consisted of a tunic embroidered with palm branches (tunica palmata), the same toga decorated with gold stars of purple color (toga pieta). Kaligi boots, like a soldier's shoe, were made of red leather and trimmed with gold. In one hand he had to hold a laurel branch, and in the other - an ivory scepter, the pommel of which was a golden eagle; the head of the triumphant was always decorated with a laurel wreath.
Triumphal Arch of Trajan in Timgad, Algeria.
He had to enter Rome on a round gilded quadriga chariot drawn by four white horses. When the triumphant Camille first appeared on a chariot drawn by white horses, the audience greeted this with a murmur, since white horses were a symbol of deity, but then they became commonplace. Sometimes horses were replaced by elephants, deer and other rare animals associated, so to speak, with the place of the triumphant's victory. Thus, it was the triumphal chariot that represented the center of the procession. However, its democratic character was emphasized by the fact that senators and magistrates walked in front of it, trumpeters walked behind, loudly trumpeting silver or gilded trumpets.
Along the entire long path along which the procession moved, the inhabitants of the Eternal City crowded, hungry for bread and circuses, in their best clothes, with wreaths of flowers on their heads and olive branches in their hands. Naturally, many sought to see their loved ones returning from the campaign, but the public was especially interested in that part of it, in which, after the chariot of the triumphant, they carried the trophies he had captured.
Arch of Titus Flavius Vespasian in Rome.
In the most ancient era of its history, Rome fought with its neighbors, people as poor as the Romans themselves. Therefore, they had the simplest trophies: weapons, livestock and prisoners. When Rome began to wage wars with the ancient and wealthy states of the East, the victors began to bring so many booty from there that the triumph lasted for two or three days, and Trajan's triumph, which took place in 107, was so magnificent that it lasted 123 days. On special stretchers, carts and simply in their hands, soldiers and slaves carried and carried captured weapons, banners, models of captured cities and fortresses, and statues of defeated deities captured in ruined temples. Together with the trophies, they carried tables with texts telling about the exploits of Roman weapons or explaining what, in fact, are objects carried before the public. Sometimes it could even be various unseen animals from conquered countries, and rare works of art. It should not be surprising that from Greece, Macedonia and other countries of the Hellenistic culture a huge amount of art treasures, precious dishes, gold and silver coins in vessels and ingots of precious metals were exported. They carried in the procession and gold wreaths, which the triumphant received in different cities. So, during the triumph of Emilius Paul, there were 400 such wreaths, and Julius Caesar was presented with such wreaths in honor of his victories over Gaul, Egypt, Pontus and Africa … about 3000! And this is not for all the named victories, but for each of them!
Bas-relief from the Arch of Titus Flavius Vespasian, depicting a triumphal procession with trophies from Jerusalem that he captured.
Without fail, white sacrificial bulls with gilded horns, decorated with flower garlands, accompanied by priests and youths in white tunics and also with wreaths on their heads, walked in the procession. But almost the main decoration of triumph in the eyes of the Romans was not bulls and captured trophies, but … noble captives: the defeated kings and members of their families, as well as their entourage, and enemy commanders. Some of these captives were killed by order of the triumphant directly during the triumph in a special prison on the slope of the Capitol. In the early era of Roman history, the killing of prisoners was the most common occurrence and had the character of human sacrifice. However, the Romans did not abandon this custom later either. This is how the king of Yugurt and the Gallic leader Vercingetorix were killed.
Titus Flavius Vespasianus on the quadriga during his triumph.
Demonstrating to all the power of the triumphant, in front of him were the lictors with fasciae entwined with laurel branches; and along the procession ran jesters and acrobats, amusing the crowd. Moreover, it is interesting that the triumphant was not driving alone in his chariot, he was surrounded by specially recruited children and his relatives, who also demonstrated the presence of close family ties, which were very highly valued in Rome. It is also known that behind the triumphant there was always a state slave who held a golden wreath over his head and from time to time whispered in his ear: "Remember that you are mortal too!" The triumphant was followed by his main assistants, legates and military tribunes, and sometimes the Roman citizens freed by him from enemy captivity. And only after all this, the legionaries entered the city in ceremonial outfit and sultans on helmets, demonstrating their awards received in battles. They sang funny songs in which it was allowed to ridicule the shortcomings of the triumphant, which once again hinted to him that he was also a man, and not a god!
Another perspective of the same bas-relief.
Starting on the Champ de Mars, at the triumphal gates, the procession moved on through two circuses: the Flaminiev circus and the Maximus circus ("Bolshoi"), and then along the Sacred Road and through the forum ascended the Capitol Hill. Here, to the statue of Jupiter, the lictors of the triumphant folded the laurels of their fascias, and he himself made a magnificent sacrifice. Then there was a feast for magistrates and senators, and often also for soldiers and even the entire assembled public, for which tables were set up in the streets, and bulls and rams were roasted right in the squares. Gladiator games were part of the “program”. Sometimes the general handed out gifts to the public. Gifts to the soldiers were the rule and were sometimes very significant. For example, Caesar paid five thousand denarii to his soldiers. Those who were awarded triumph received the right to wear a triumphal dress on holidays, which was also one of their privileges.
Arc de Triomphe of Septimius Severus at the Roman Forum.
In the era of the empire, triumphs became the property of the emperors alone. They did not want to share their glory with anyone, sometimes allowing the triumph only to their closest relatives. The generals were only allowed to wear a triumphal garment (ornamenta, insignia triumphalia) and set their statues among the statues of previous triumphants. However, they could not complain. After all, the emperor was officially the commander-in-chief and, therefore, the commander acted on his behalf and under his command.
