Battle of Lepanto. Unknown artist of the late 16th century
On September 6, 1566, when the Turkish janissaries stormed the small town of Siget (later known as Shigetvar) to the sound of their famous drums, Suleiman the Magnificent died on the road between Belgrade and Vienna in his tent at the age of 73. The bright era of the reign of one of the most famous rulers of the Ottoman Empire has ended. Having spent 13 military campaigns, personally participating in each, the old warrior died of illness and old age. The Janissaries took Sziget, unaware that their leader was no longer alive. Personally devoted to the deceased sultan, the Grand Vizier Sokollu Mehmed Pasha hid the news from the army for several days that Suleiman was no longer there, sending messengers to Istanbul. The news transmitted in time allowed Selim, the son of the Sultan from his beloved wife Khyurrem, to establish himself on the throne and take full power in the country. It was the chain of decisions made by the new ruler, known in history as Selim II the Drunkard, and his entourage that led to the largest naval battle of the late Middle Ages - the Battle of Lepanto.
There would be gold in the wallet, and the clouds are not afraid of us
By the end of the 16th century, the Ottoman Empire was at the peak of its power and had virtually no enemies in the eastern Mediterranean basin. It possessed all the proper tools to satisfy its foreign policy ambitions: a huge, well-trained army and a large navy. The Christian states opposing it not only were unable to form even a miserable semblance of some kind of coalition, but were also busy trying to sort things out among themselves. The Holy Roman Empire was in fact a huge swarm of small Germanic states. Mighty Spain fought with France for control of Italy, the result was the Battle of Pavia (1525), the defeat of the French and the capture of King Francis I. After that, the losers dealt with the growing internal problems. The Spanish monarchy, absorbed in the development of the newly discovered New World, paid less attention to the Mediterranean problems. The safe crossing of the Atlantic by ships laden with gold and silver was an increasingly important factor in the well-being of Madrid. Another major political player of that time, the Venetian Republic, tried with all its might not to quarrel with the Turks, turned a blind eye to the frequent seizures of its ships by Barbary pirates, vassals of Istanbul, and other similar mischief. All the well-being of the Venetians was based on sea communications and the ability to receive goods from the East.
In 1565, the Turks launched a military expedition against the island of Malta, but suffered a painful failure. The very fact of the appearance of the Ottoman fleet in the center of the Mediterranean Sea and the growing atrocities of the Algerian and Tunisian pirates began to cause fears "among pragmatic people following politics." In 1566, Pius V, who was reputed to be a pious man, became the new Pope of Rome, who at the same time considered restoring control of Christians over the Mediterranean as the most important task and made a lot of efforts to create a coalition called the Holy League.
The enthusiasm of the new pontiff initially did not find support. The Austrian Archduke Maximilian II adhered to the peace signed with the Ottomans, the south of Spain was engulfed in the Moriscos revolt (this was the name for the Arabs who remained on the territory of the Iberian Peninsula and for one reason or another converted to Christianity). The Venetian Republic did not at all want any turbidity on the horizon - the basis of its existence was based on the slogan: the tranquility of trade is above all. But, as Rudyard Kipling accurately noted, among the metals there is one that "rules over everything," even over gold - cold iron, which will soon say its weighty word again.
Isn't it time to warm up a little? or an island on fire
Selim, entrenched on the throne, inherited from his father only military ambitions, but not the talent of a military leader. He strove for fatherly fame, without having any noticeable talents to achieve it. A stormy temperament thirsted for activity, and the new sultan began to consult with those close to him on the topic “Where can we fight?”. The Grand Vizier Sokollu Mehmed Pasha, to whom Selim delegated such a troublesome thing as the administration of the state, insisted on a blow to Spain, which was busy suppressing the Morisca uprising. The sudden transfer to the Pyrenees (with an emphasis on the North African coast, controlled by the Berbers) of a large army, which would be willingly reinforced by the rebels, would create, in his opinion, a mortal danger to the Habsburg monarchy. But Selim did not dare to undertake such a large-scale expedition, but directed the vizier to something closer. The rich Venetian colonies were closer, namely the island of Cyprus, already in the depths of the Turkish possessions. However, in relations with the Venetians there was such an inconvenient thing as a peace treaty. A reason was needed. What will the ruler, who so wants to fight, do not do! As a casus belli, a tough argument was put forward: since the island was twice already owned by orthodox Arabs, it just needs to be freed from enemy occupation. Mufti Ibn Said, at the suggestion of Selim, prepared for this purpose an "ideological platform" in the form of a corresponding firman.
The commander of the fleet and the entire expedition, Piali Pasha, guaranteed the success of the enterprise. And not without reason. In 1569, a great fire caused enormous damage to the Venetian Arsenal, and Cyprus itself was at a distance of 2 thousand km from the metropolis. In February 1570, Sultan Selim declares a holy war against the infidels. On July 1, 1570, a 56,000-strong Turkish army lands in Cyprus.
The Governor of Cyprus, Niccolò Dandolo, could oppose such hordes of no more than 10 thousand people and considered a battle in the open area impossible. The Venetians took refuge in the well-fortified capital of Nicosia and in the small town of Famagusta. Fast ships were sent to the metropolis with a request for help. The news of a Turkish landing in Cyprus takes the commercial republic by surprise. Nicosia fell on September 3, 1570. New fortifications and bastions did not help, for which huge funds were spent. Having failed in two assaults and in digging tunnels, the Turks launched an attack along the entire perimeter of the walls, preventing the enemy from maneuvering reserves. The garrison was almost completely destroyed, the inhabitants were partially destroyed, partially sold into slavery. Famagusta, with its old walls, was surprisingly holding on. The rocky soil prevented large-scale siege work, and at first the Turks limited themselves to blocking the fortress. The commander of the garrison, Marco Antonio Bragadino, skillfully conducted the defense, even managing to organize a breakthrough of several galleys from the harbor with a request for help.
Daddy speaks convincingly
Of course, Venice alone, despite its financial capabilities and a powerful fleet, could not withstand the entire might of the Ottoman Empire - the difference in the weight category was too big. The active 85th Venetian Doge Alvise I Mocenigo begins major foreign policy events in search of allies. Ambassadors and emissaries are sent to the capitals of European states to carry out soundings on the subject “help as you can”. At first, the mission of the Venetian diplomats was more like the ordeal of Gauf's Little Muk - they were listened to attentively, nodded sympathetically, shed sincere tears, but at the same time they complained about difficult times and advised to turn to someone else. After all, the quite recent dismissive, even negative, attitude of Venice itself to possible anti-Turkish "sanctions" due to the threat of losing trade profits was well known. Now circumstances have taken the "trading corporation" from the Adriatic by the throat.
The situation changed when all organizational issues were taken over by the energetic Pius V, who, in order to give the anti-Turkish coalition more dynamism, started sending letters of instructive content: "Would you be kind …" The pontiff especially succeeded in eloquence addressed to Philip II, King of Spain. He appealed to the religious feelings of the monarch, called to remember the glorious deeds of the kings of the Reconquista period. And in general, he made it clear in florid expressions that while the ships of the Muslim barbarians ply the vastness of the Mediterranean Sea, it is worthless for the guardian of the faith, the support of the Holy See, to recklessly count peacocks in the Escorial garden. It was fraught with a quarrel with Rome, and Philip II sent 50 galleys under the command of the Sicilian condottiere Andrea Doria to help the Venetians. Pius V also equips a small squadron. On September 1, 1570, these forces join the Venetian fleet of 120 galleys stationed in Candia (Crete) under the command of Girolamo Zana. At the council of war, it was decided to go to Cyprus and release it, if necessary, engaging in battle with the enemy. In mid-September, the combined fleet (180 galleys) reaches Asia Minor in the Anatolia region, where it receives two unpleasant news: Nicosia has fallen, and Piali Pasha with two hundred galleys is based in Rhodes, threatening the communications of the allies. In the end, it was decided to return to Candia. Only the fortress Famagusta continued to stubbornly hold on.
It is easier to beat with herd and dad, or the Creation of the Holy League
The unsuccessful outcome of the 1570 company in Venice was taken extremely painfully. Girolamo Zana was removed from his position as commander, and was replaced by the more determined Sebastiano Venier. Istanbul also considered Piali Pasha's actions indecisive ("he sat out on Rhodes"), and he was replaced by the favorite of the Sultan's wife, Ali Pasha. The 1571 campaign was to be intense.
Meanwhile, the restless Pius sought to infuse the epic spirit of the Crusades into his enterprise, fueled enthusiasm with powerful sermons and, as they say now, "tough statements." The winter of 1570-71 was productively spent by papal and Venetian diplomats to create a unified anti-Turkish coalition, whose members were supposed to take on specific responsibilities, and not just be observer countries with a vague status. The rulers of Austria and France, citing a very difficult internal political situation and the crisis, declined to participate. But in relation to Philip II, the Pope's admonitions were successful. Reluctantly and wincing at the more and more reports of the attack on the Spanish convoys in the Atlantic by dastardly English heretics, the king agreed to participate in the campaign of almost all of his Mediterranean fleet.
Don Juan Austrian
On May 25, 1571, in St. Peter's Cathedral, representatives of Philip II, Pius V and the Doge of Venice signed a document establishing the Holy League - a military-political alliance directed against the Ottoman Empire. The signatories pledged to deploy military contingents totaling 200 galleys and 50,000 soldiers. The command of the armed forces of the Holy League was assumed by the king's half-brother don Juan of Austria. It was decided that the first active steps would be taken in the summer of 1571.
Final in Cyprus."And the sea boiled with a thousand oars." The fleet goes to sea
From about mid-June, allied squadrons begin to stay in the port of Messina (Sicily). The Spanish contingent also included galleys of Genoa, which was dependent on Spain. In September 1571, news reached the Allies about the tragic end of the siege, which had not received help from the fortress of Famagusta. Since spring, the Turks have taken seriously this last stronghold of the Venetians on the island. Pulling up their artillery, they launched a massive bombardment of the fortress, followed by two unsuccessful assaults. The defenders held on bravely, but by the end of the summer food supplies had come to an end; by August, the commandant of the garrison, Marco Antonio Bragadino, had no more than 500 combat-ready soldiers. The commander of the Turkish army, Mustafa Pasha, offered honorable terms of surrender. But during the signing of the agreement, the Turks suddenly began a massacre, killing many Christians. Bragadino himself was put to a painful death: his skin was torn off alive.
The news of the massacre in Famagusta infuriated not only the Venetians, but the entire allied fleet. Now there was an incentive more significant than the papal proclamations to go to sea and take revenge. Don Juan of Austria became aware of the appearance of enemy ships in the southern sector of the Adriatic Sea. It was now a matter of honor to go out to sea and fight.
On September 16, the Holy League fleet left Messina. On 27 September he reached Corfu, the governor of which reported that a Turkish fleet had been seen from the island heading south towards the port of Lepanto (Strait of Corinth). Seeing that the battle was inevitable, don Juan carried out the redistribution of personnel from the approaching transports. He reinforces the crews of the Venetian galleys with Spanish and Genoese soldiers. This leads to friction between allies - several people are hanged for fights. The entire expedition is under threat. But thanks to the diplomatic talents of Marco Antonio Colonna, the commander of the papal squadron, it is possible to keep the situation under control. The brave but overly hot-tempered Sebastiano Venier is replaced as the commander of the Venetian squadron by the more restrained 70-year-old Agostino Barbarigo. Soon the fast reconnaissance galleys reported that an enemy fleet had been spotted in the Gulf of Corinth.
The Turks, meanwhile, were in Lepanto, where Ali Pasha's ships took on board 12 thousand people for additional equipment, mostly dismounted vultures - selected heavy cavalry. Ali Pasha's flagship of the Sultan galley took on board 200 janissaries. Information about the approaching enemy reached the Turkish commander, and on October 4 he is gathering a council of war. The problem was that Selim II, who imagined himself to be a grand strategist and a brilliant tactician, from Istanbul knew incommensurably better how to conduct a war correctly. Therefore, he sent Ali Pasha an order "to seek encounters and give battle to the enemy." History shows that when incompetent and openly incompetent rulers enroll themselves in a club named after Caesar and Bonaparte, it always leads to disaster. The larger the country, the greater the disaster.
Uluj Ali, pirate and admiral
The opinions of the flagships of the Turkish fleet were divided. The younger commander, the cautious Mehemed Sulik Pasha (nicknamed Cirocco) rightly pointed out that autumn storms would soon begin and the allies would retreat to the bases, so we had to wait. The second flagship, the commander of the Berber squadron, skilled in maneuvering operations, Uluj Ali Pasha, on the contrary, fought for the battle, for it would be enough to hang around after Lepanto's women. In the end, having waved in front of the Sultan's instructions, Ali Pasha announced that he had decided to give battle. The die was cast.
Crimson waves. Battle
Battle Outline (Naval Atlas, Volume III, Part 1)
On the morning of October 7, 1571, at about 7 am, the opponents visually detected each other. On that day, the allied fleet had 206 galleys and 6 galleases. The latter were a kind of hybrid of a sailing and rowing ship, were well armed and had large crews. The personnel of the Holy League fleet consisted of more than 40 thousand sailors and crew members and 28 thousand soldiers of the boarding teams. The opposing Turkish fleet had 208 galleys, 56 galiots and 64 fustos. The last two types are small vessels that were used to transfer personnel from ship to ship. On the ships were about 50 thousand rowers and 27 thousand troops (of which 10 thousand janissaries and 2 thousand sipahs). Most of the rowers in the Turkish galleys were slaves, and during the battle it was necessary to allocate soldiers to keep them in subjection. Ali Pasha's ships had, on average, fewer guns than their European opponents, there were more archers among the Ottoman battle teams, and more arquebusiers among the Europeans. Overall, the Allied fleet had superior firepower.
The opponents spent about two hours building up their battle formations. By analogy with ground battles, the right and left wings, center and reserve were clearly distinguished. The disposition to the beginning of the case was as follows. Among the Allies, the left wing, leaning against the coast, was led by Agostino Barbarigo (53 galleys, 2 galleases). The center was headed directly by Juan of Austria at the flagship gallery "Real" (62 galleys, 2 galleases). The left wing (53 galleys, 2 galeases) was commanded by Andea Doria. The rearguard, aka the reserve, included 38 galleys under the flag of Don Alvaro de Bazana. It also included reconnaissance from 8 high-speed galleys (Giovanni di Cardonna).
The Turkish fleet was divided in a similar way. The right flank consisted of 60 galleys, 2 galiots under the leadership of Mehmed Sulik Pasha. Ali Pasha had 87 galleys - these were the main forces. And, finally, the left flank included the dashing fellows Uluja Ali in 67 galleys and 32 galiots. In the rearguard was Dragut Reis with 8 small high-speed galleys and 22 galleys.
By 9 am, the construction was generally completed. The fleets were separated by approximately 6 kilometers. Due to the haste caused by the desire of the Allied galleys to quickly take places in the ranks, the heavy galleases fell behind and did not have time to advance to their positions in front of the battle formations. The opposing fleets lined up in front formation against each other. It was soon revealed that Turkish forces were looming over both flanks of the Holy League.
By order of their commanders, both armada prepared for battle began rapprochement. According to the testimonies of the participants, it was a magnificent sight. Hundreds of ships, lined up in rows, went to meet the battle - the measured creak of galley oars, the clash of weapons, the shouts of commands and the rumble of drums, counting the rhythm for the rowers, resounded over the water. Juan of Austria in the flagship "Real" ordered a cannon to be fired to identify himself - he deliberately sought a meeting with the enemy commander. In response, a return shot from "Sultana" thundered. At this the "gentleman's stage" of the battle began and ended. Ali Pasha, an excellent archer, took a place among the combat crew of his flagship. At about 10 o'clock in the morning, the fleets were in the zone of destruction by artillery fire. At 10:20, one of the heavy galleases in front of the main force opened fire. The third salvo has already covered up - one of the large galleys of the Turks got a hole and began to sink. At half past eleven, the northern wing of the Christian fleet was already engaged in battle. Two galleases, marching in front of the Barbarigo galleys, like heavy horsemen, began to screw themselves into the Turkish order, firing constant fire at the Ottoman galleys trying to round them. The system of Mehmed Sulik Pasha was mixed. Considering that the frontal attack will not be effective enough, he begins to make a flank maneuver with part of his forces on the move, trying to bypass the enemy along the coast. A desperate dump began, its center was the flagship lantern (heavy galley) Barbarigo, which was attacked by five Turkish galleys. The brave old man led the battle, sitting at the mainmast, until he raised the visor of his helmet to give another order. At that moment, an arrow hit him in the eye. The badly wounded Barbarigo was carried into the hold. Seeing the injury of their commander, the team hesitated, but at that moment galleys from the reserve approached, and the onslaught of the Turks was repulsed. The flank maneuver of Mehmed Sulik Pasha was at first quite successful and created a threat to cover the flank of the Christians, but one of the junior commanders of Barbarigo, who took command, Marco Quirini, made a bold decision to bypass the enemy that was bypassing and strike in the rear. This maneuver to encircle those around them led to success - the Turkish galleys were pressed against the shallows of the marshy coast and were under heavy fire from the forces of the Holy League. Crews began to abandon their ships en masse and tried to swim to the shore. Christian slaves rebelled in many of the galleys, which hastened the end of the Turkish right flank. By one o'clock in the afternoon, it was practically destroyed - hundreds of Turks were captured, including the severely burned Cirocco Mehmed Sulik Pasha.
In the center, after the "gentleman's shots", the main forces at 11 o'clock began to exchange volleys, closing the distance. And here the Venetian galeases pretty much spoiled the harmony of the rows for the Turks. Ali Pasha was even forced to order to slow down in order to level his order. The flagship Real and Sultan were getting closer to each other. Around both commanders were the largest galleys with large crews, since it was clear that this would be the epicenter of the battle. At 11.40, the flagships met in a boarding battle: the Christians fired densely from the arquebus - the Turks responded with a shower of arrows. The selected janissaries rushed to the attack on the deck of the Real Madrid, but they were also met by the elite Spanish infantry. And again Toledo steel resumed its dispute with Damascus steel. The Turks managed to take the forecastle, but they did not advance further. More and more galleys approached the grappling flagships from both sides, seeking to provide support. Soon it was already a tangle of almost 30 ships, on the decks of which desperate battles took place. Low-tonnage Turkish galiots and maneuverable fusts tried to transfer reinforcements from the reserve to the galleys fighting near the Sultana. Christians performed similar actions. Don lvaro de Bazan threw into the battle the reserves saved as a last resort. The Spaniards, who had received reinforcements, cleared the deck of the Real Madrid of the Turks by noon, and the battle moved on to the Sultana. In the midst of a merciless battle, Captain's galley Marco Antonio Colonna was able to break through to the Turkish flagship and crash into its stern. The crew of the flagship of the Turks fought desperately, Ali Pasha himself fired from a bow like a simple warrior. But by one o'clock the Sultana was captured - Ali Pasha died in battle. According to one version, his head was cut off and planted on a lance. The capture of the flagship had a depressing effect on the Turkish main forces, the resistance of the Ottomans began to weaken. The line fell apart - a disorderly retreat began. By half-past two, the center of the Turkish fleet was completely destroyed.
Interesting actions took place in the south, where desperate sea grunts, professionals in their field, Andrea Doria and Uluj Ali met. The Barbary Admiral was a man with a biography. Italian by origin, Giovanni Dirnigi Galeni was captured by pirates as a 17-year-old boy, converted to Islam and made a brilliant career, rising to the rank of governor of Algeria. The Italian was not inferior in experience to his counterpart. With the beginning of the battle, Uluj Ali sought to bypass the left flank of the Christians in order to strike them from the rear - most of the Turkish galleys here were small high-speed ships of the Barbary pirates. Doria, in order not to be bypassed, was forced to repeat the maneuver of his opponent. Both wings broke away from their main forces. At 12 o'clock, realizing that it would not be possible to bypass the Italian, Uluj Ali orders his forces to turn northwest to enter the gap between the center and the right wing of the Christian fleet. Andrea Doria immediately dispatches from his forces the 16 fastest galleys under the command of Giovanni di Cardonna to prevent this maneuver. Seeing the division of his opponent's forces, Uluj Ali attacks Cardonna with all his ships. Berbers began to take up. Uluj Ali boarded the fiercely resisting galley of the Knights of Malta and eventually captured it. From complete destruction, di Cardonna was saved by the approach of the main forces of Andrea Doria and the huge galeas of Andrea de Cesaro, who supported their fire. Uluj Ali left the main part of his forces to fight Doria, and he himself with 30 galleys went to the aid of Ali Pasha. But it was too late. The flagship was killed, the Turkish center was defeated. The detachment of Cardonna, at the cost of huge losses, fulfilled its task - it distracted the Berbers. Uluja Ali's private success did not decide anything. He ordered his ships to retreat. As a consolation prize, the corsair took the captured Maltese galley in tow, which, however, had to be abandoned soon after. To troll his opponents, Uluj Ali tied the Maltese flag to the mast of his flagship. However, the battle was hopelessly lost. Approximately 30 high-speed galleys managed to escape with the Berber admiral, who left the battlefield at about 2 p.m. The battle lasted about another hour, but it was more likely to finish off an already defeated enemy. In the heat of battle, don Juan wanted to pursue Uluj Ali, but his flagships reported heavy ship damage and losses. The Christians were tired of the battle, which lasted almost 4 hours.
Flight of Uluj Ali (drawing from A. Konstam's book “Lepanto 1571. The greatest naval battle of the Renaissance”)
The Turkish fleet was completely destroyed. 170 ships became trophies of the Holy League. The losses of the Turks in personnel were equal to almost 30 thousand people. The prisoners were taken reluctantly - there were no more than 3000. 15 thousand Christian slaves were freed. The Holy League lost 10 galleys, 10 thousand killed, 21 thousand people were injured. The Allied fleet was able to leave the place of battle only with the help of the freed rowers. Seriously wounded, Cirocco Mehmed Sulik Pasha asked to shoot him to save him from his torment, and the victors generously complied with his request. His opponent, also badly wounded, Barbarigo, having learned of the victory, died of torture. On October 9, don Juan ordered to move north. On October 23rd, filled with groaning wounded ships of the Christian fleet arrived in Corfu, where the victors were divided: the Venetians went north, and the rest of the forces went to Messina.
How many wounded died on the way at the then level of medicine - no one counted.
Coalition at a broken trough
Don Juan of Austria standard
A brilliant victory at Lepanto did not lead to anything. The destruction of the fleet was a painful but not fatal blow for the Ottoman Empire. Returning to Istanbul, Uluj Ali told Selim II his version of the unfolding events, after which he was treated kindly, appointed a hero and received the post of commander of the fleet, which was successfully rebuilt in the near future. In May 1572, the main ideologue of the Holy League, Pius V, died, and its members lost their inspiration and interest in this political enterprise. Juan of Austria concentrated his efforts on operations against Tunisia, which he managed to recapture in the same 1573, but in the next year, 1574, Uluj Ali would return him no less successfully. Spain was more interested in the problems in the Netherlands and the actions of the British pirates than in the fuss in the eastern Mediterranean. Left virtually alone with the Ottoman Empire, Venice was forced to sign the peace proposed by the Turks. She renounced the rights to Cyprus and had to pay the Sultan 300 thousand ducats over three years. The signing of the peace caused a storm of indignation in Spain, which was increasingly tied in confrontation with England. In Madrid, it was believed that Venice betrayed all the results of the victory at Lepanto, while the Spaniards themselves did not want to fight the Turks. Selim II, nicknamed "The Drunkard," briefly outlived his enemy, Pius V - on December 15, he died in the harem of the Topkapi Palace. He never won his father's fame.
Almost 500 years have passed since the largest battle of the Renaissance at Lepanto. The galley as a class of ship will be actively used for another two and a half centuries. The thunder of Gangut and Grengam, the First and Second Battles of Rochensalm, had not yet sounded.
Archaeological research at the site of the Battle of Lepanto is not being carried out due to restrictions imposed by the Greek government. No one disturbs the peace of the thousands of Muslim and Christian soldiers who have found their last refuge at the bottom of the sea. Time and waves reconciled the dead, but not the living.
