The ranks of the knights mixed, they were in the hundreds, and everyone struck and attacked, using the weapon in action.
Whom will the Lord choose, to whom will success send?
There you could see stones deadly years, A lot of torn chain mail and dissected armor, And the way spears and blades both wound and sting.
And the sky in the commotion of arrows looked like this, As if rain was drizzling through a hundred small sieves!
(Song of the crusade against the Albigensians. Lessa 207. Translated from the Old Occitan by I. Belavin)
This region includes the entire old kingdom of France south of the Loire River and much of what is now known as the Midi-Pyrenees, the largest region of France, covering an area larger than some European countries such as Denmark, Switzerland or the Netherlands. The area under consideration included the huge Duchy of Aquitaine, the smaller Duchy of Gascony, and many minor baronies and marquisates. By the middle of the 11th century, its own special culture, its own language (Occitan) and its own military traditions were formed here.
Miniature "David and Goliath" from Stephen Harding's Bible, circa 1109-1111. (Library of the Municipality of Dijon)
In the middle of the XII century, almost the entire region, with the exception of the County of Toulouse, fell under the control of the County of Anjou. Henry, Earl of Anjou, became King Henry II of England, with the result that most of this territory soon became part of the vast Angevin Empire (a term used by some historians, it was not really called that), stretching from Scotland to the Spanish border. It is clear that the French monarchy felt simply obliged to destroy this state within the state, although its large part in the feudal-legal relation was theoretically subject to the French crown. Between 1180 and the outbreak of the Hundred Years War in 1337, the kings of France managed to reduce the territory of southern France, which was controlled by English monarchs, to the southern part of the county of Sentonge, which was part of the Duchy of Aquitaine, with which it became the possession of England in 1154, and western Gascony.
Bas-relief depicting fighting horsemen (Church of St. Martin, Vomecourt-sur-Madon, Canton of Charm, Epinal district, Vosges, Grand Est, France)
Again, it should be remembered that it was the south of France, and above all the County of Toulouse, that for a long time were the stronghold of the Albigensians, which led to the crusade (1209 - 1229), which in fact was a war of the culturally backward North against the more developed South. The result of it was the interpenetration of cultures: for example, the work of the troubadours penetrated the northern regions of France, but in the south the military influence of the North increased significantly.
Militia of Northern France. Rice. Angus McBride.
Further, we can say that France was not too lucky in the Middle Ages, because whoever did not attack her at that time. Let's start with the VIII century and … there won't be enough to bend your fingers to count all those who invaded its territory. In 732, the Arabs invaded France and reached Tours. In 843, according to the Treaty of Verdun, the Frankish state was divided into parts: the Middle, Eastern and Western. Paris became the capital of the West Frankish kingdom, and already in 845 it was besieged and then plundered by the Vikings. In 885-886 they laid siege to it again. True, this time they managed to defend Paris. However, although the Vikings left, but only after they were paid 700 livres of silver or … 280 kg! In 911, 913, 934, 954the central regions were subjected to crushing raids by the Hungarians. They invaded the South of France in 924 and 935.
That is, the former Carolingian empire was threatened by Vikings from the north, Magyars from the east and Arabs from the south! That is, the French kingdom until 1050 had to actually develop in a ring of enemies, not to mention internal wars caused by such a phenomenon as feudal fragmentation.
Only knightly cavalry could repel all these blows. And she appeared in France, which is confirmed by the well-known "embroidery from Bayeux", and numerous miniatures from manuscripts, and, of course, effigies, of which there were no less, if not more, in France than in neighboring England. But it has already been said here that many of them suffered during the years of the Great French Revolution. Nevertheless, what has somehow survived to this day is quite enough to restore the entire course of those changes that the equestrian armament of the knights of France underwent over "our" three centuries.
Let's start with the fact that we note: that on the miniatures of both 1066 and 1100-1111, that is, about half a century later, the warriors are depicted almost the same. For example, Goliath from Harding's Bible and the warriors in the bas-relief in the Church of St. Martin in the village of Vomecourt-sur-Madon in the Vosges are very similar to each other. On the bas-relief, the warriors are practically indistinguishable from those depicted on the "embroidery from Bayeux". They have similar helmets and almond-shaped shields. By the way, they are no different from the traditional images of the knights of Russia, who have exactly the same helmets and almond-shaped or "serpentine" (this is how they are called in English-language historiography) shields!
A warrior with a capital letter from the French manuscript Commentary on the Psalms 1150-1200. (University of Montpellier Library, Montpellier, France)
However, already in 1150 - 1200. French soldiers were dressed in chain mail from head to toe, that is, in a chain mail hauberg with braided chain mail mittens, although at first the sleeves of chain mail reached only the elbow. The Bayeux Tapestry shows us the nobility with chain mail stripes on their legs, tied at the back with laces or straps. The bulk of the soldiers do not have this protection of legs. But now almost all the warriors in miniatures are shown dressed in chasses woven from chain mail. They already wear surcoats over their chain mail. Over the course of 100 years, the kite shield has turned into a triangular shield with a flat top.
The Crusader from The Illustrated Bible - Manuscript 1190-1200. (Royal National Library of the Netherlands, The Hague). Attention is drawn to the outdated by this time protection of the legs, which can be seen even on the "embroidery from Bayeux".
The helmets have also changed their shape. Helmets in the form of a dome with a nosepiece appeared, and for helmets with a tip on the top of the head, they began to bend it forward. True, referring to the drawings of the Winchester Bible (1165-1170), we will notice that, although the length of the chain mail remained the same as in 1066, the figure of the knight visually changed a lot, since the fashion appeared to wear them over long caftans with ankles, and bright colors too! That is, progress in armament took place, of course, but it was very slow.
Warriors of France in the first half of the XII century. Rice. Angus McBride.
Chain mail made by the Penza master A. Davydov based on chain mail fragments found at the Zolotarevskoye settlement, that is, dating back to 1236. Exactly 23,300 rings were used to make it. The outer diameter is 12.5 mm, the inner diameter is 8.5 mm, the thickness of the rings is 1.2 mm. Chain mail weight 9.6 kg. All rings are riveted.
A duel between knights. Fresco, circa 1232-1266 (Tower of Ferrande, Perne-le-Fontaine, France). Here, as we can see, horse blankets are already present, and, most importantly, forged knee pads. Well, of course, it is very well shown that the blow of the spear to the neck, even if protected by chain mail, was irresistible.
French knights of the Albigensian wars and the leader of the northern crusaders, Simon de Montfort, killed with a stone thrower during the siege of Toulouse. Rice. Angus McBride. Painted helmets (paint was applied to protect them from rust), quilted under-armor clothing and the same knee pads are striking.
The beginning of the XIII century. marked by a number of significant improvements in knightly armor. So, the shields became even smaller, chain mail now covered the entire body of the warrior, but quilted "pipes" with a convex forged "cup" are used to protect the knees. Although, again, not all wear them at first. But gradually the novelty enters into widespread use.
Carcassonne effigy. General form.
In the castle of Carcassonne there is an unnamed effigy of the 13th century, brought there from the nearby abbey of La Grasse and which, despite the damage inflicted on it, very clearly shows us the most typical changes in the equipment of the knights of this century. On it we see a surcoat, with two coats of arms embroidered on the chest. Moreover, this is not the coat of arms of the Trancavel family. On it is a fortress with one tower and a border. It is known that from the moment when Robert I of Anjou in France "invented" the border, it immediately spread throughout Europe, and in the most varied variations, imitations and imitations, and in Spain it was especially successful. In France, it began to be used for the breeze (modification) of the coat of arms and included in the coat of arms of the third sons. That is, it is either the coat of arms of some Spanish knight or a French one, but a third son, some fairly sovereign lord. Finding out this is important for one simple reason. We know the approximate time of death of the master of effigia and … we see his armor. He is wearing a chain mail hauberk, but his legs below the knees are covered with anatomical leggings and sabatons made of plates characteristic of Spain. At that time, such armor could only be worn by very wealthy people, since they were not widespread. And the effigia itself is very large (see photo), and the larger the sculpture, the more expensive it is, of course!
Surcoat with coats of arms and chain mail hood with a characteristic flap. Castle of Carcassonne.
Legs of Carcassonne effigy. The loops on the flaps of the leg armor and rivets on the Sabaton plates are clearly visible.
By the way, about the fact that for some time among the knights there was a fashion for the image of coats of arms on the breast of the surcoat. David Nicole, in his book "The French Army in the Hundred Years War", cited a photograph of the effigia of the lord of the castle of Bramewac from the first half of the 14th century as an example of outdated armor that was preserved at that time in remote corners of southern France. On it we even see three coats of arms at once: a large one on the chest and two coats of arms on the sleeves.
Effigia Senor Bramevac. One of the tombs of the monastery of Notre Dame Cathedral, Saint-Bertrand-de-Cominges, Haute-Garonne, France.
An exceptionally valuable illuminated source of information on military affairs of the XIII century is the "Bible of Matsievsky (or" Bible of the Crusader "), created by order of the King of France Saint Louis IX somewhere in 1240-1250. Its miniatures depict knights and infantrymen, armed precisely in the armor characteristic of this time for France, which belonged to the royal domain. After all, the one who illustrated it simply could not be somewhere far from the king, her customer. And apparently he was very well versed in all the intricacies of the military craft. However, in her miniatures, riders in plate leggings are absent. Hence, it is permissible to conclude that they have already been in the South of France, but in its North - at this time they have not yet!
Scene from "The Maciejewski Bible" (Morgan Library and Museum, New York). The central figure is noteworthy. It is difficult to say which biblical story formed the basis of this miniature, but it is significant that he holds his “big helmet” in his hand. Apparently he is not very comfortable in it. Characteristic are the wounds depicted in the miniature - a half severed hand, a helmet cut by a sword blow, a dagger wound in the face.
At the same time, if we look at a number of effigies of the early 14th century, including the effigy of Robert II the Noble, Count d'Artois (1250-1302), who fell in the Battle of Courtray, it is easy to see that he already has leggings on his feet. are present. That is, at the beginning of the XIV century, they entered the everyday life of chivalry already everywhere, not only in the South, but also in the North.
Effigy of Robert II the Noble, Count d'Artois. (Basilica of Saint-Denis, Paris)
Another effigia with plate leg covers and chain mail sabatons. (Cathedral of Corbeil-Esson, Esson, France)
Chain-mail mittens are well preserved on this effigia. Obviously, they were woven directly to the sleeves. However, slits were made in the palms to allow them to be removed. It's just interesting whether they were tightened with some laces or not, because otherwise, in the heat of battle, such a mitten could slip off the hand at the most inopportune moment.
Effigia's hands from the cathedral in Corbeil-Esson. Close-up photo.
An interesting document has survived, which was written shortly before the start of the Hundred Years War, and which consistently described the process of dressing a French knight in armor. So, first, the knight should have put on a loose shirt outside and … comb his hair.
Then came the turn of stockings and leather shoes. Then they had to put on legguards and knee pads made of iron or "boiled leather", a quilted jacket-aketon and chain mail with a hood. A shell was worn over it, similar to a poncho made of metal plates sewn onto the fabric and covering the throat with a plate collar. All this was hidden in a surcoat caftan with the knight's coat of arms embroidered on it. On the hands should be put on plate mittens made of whalebone plates, and a sling for a sword over the shoulder. Only after that did he finally put on a heavy helmet or a lighter bascinet with or without a visor. The shield at that time was already used quite rarely.
We see the original chapel helmet made of overlapping bands of metal in the Chronicle of Baduan d'Avesna, circa 1275-1299. (Municipal Media Library of Arras, France). Knights hardly wore such ersatz, but for the city militia this helmet was just right.
The weaponry and armor of a warrior of the city militia differed greatly in their quality. Moreover, since the city magistrate often bought weapons for the militias, they were often used not even by one, but by several generations of warriors. Weapons were bought most often, but wooden shields were usually made on the spot, it was not too difficult a task. As a rule, crossbowmen had more complete armor than archers, since during the siege of a castle or city it was they who participated in skirmishes with their defenders, who also fired from crossbows. Preserved, for example, is a list of equipment that a crossbowman named Gerand Quesnel received from the arsenal of Clos de Gale in Rouen in 1340. According to him, Gerand was given a shell, a corset, most likely chain mail, which had to be worn under the shell, bracers and, in addition, a plate collar.
The same arsenal of Clos de Gale in Rouen produced armor, siege engines, ships, although the best quality crossbows still came from Toulouse. By the beginning of the Hundred Years War, this city could produce gambesons covered with silk and lined with fabric, plate armor for warriors and their horses, bascinets, chapel helmets with fields, battle mittens and various shields (either white or painted in the colors of the coat of arms of France and decorated with images golden lilies). It produced daggers, spears, dard darts, Norman axes, known in England as Danish axes, crossbows and crossbow triggers, and a huge number of crossbow bolts, which were packed in batches in metal-lined boxes. By the way, the first mention of the test of armor in France was also found in a document from Rouen, dating back to 1340.
During the Hundred Years War, the range of armor that was produced in Clos de Galle was supplemented by samples of armor borrowed from countries. For example, the production of Genoese shells covered with canvas and bascinets, as well as plate collars, mentioned in the document of 1347 was established here. The chain mail at this time gradually lost its mittens and hood, and its sleeves and hem were constantly shortened until it turned short haubergon. The early versions of the cuirass, as is now believed, were made of "boiled leather", as well as, judging by some effigies - strips of metal overlapping one another. Many armors had a cloth covering, although, for example, a French document of 1337 reports a shell without a cloth covering, but having a leather lining. That is, in knightly use at that time there were such!
Richard de Jaucourt - effigy of 1340 - (Abbey of Saint-Saint-l'Abbé, Cote d'Or, France)
Originally, arm and leg armor was made from strips of hard leather and metal. So, in 1340 in the Clos de Gale, bracers made of plates are mentioned. The chin-bevor, reinforcing the chainmail aventail that descended from the bascinet to the shoulders, became widespread since the 1330s, and one of the first French mentions of a plate collar dates back to 1337. For some reason, large helmets made in this arsenal were listed among … ship equipment. Well, the first bascinet, which was made here, was released in 1336, and it could be simple hemispherical helmet-liners (worn with the "big helmet") and helmets with a movable visor, which could be removed if necessary. Also, the study of French effigies shows that completely metal sabatons appeared here much earlier than in other European countries, namely by 1340!
The drawing of Angus McBride just depicts a knight in such an outfit.
The issue of knights' recognition of each other on a battlefield, apparently, was of great importance even then. And here we clearly see at least two "experiments" in this area. At first, coats of arms were embroidered (or sewn onto clothes), but in the first quarter of the 14th century they began to be depicted on ellets - shoulder plates made of cardboard, "boiled leather" or plywood, trimmed with colored fabric. Obviously, the rigid base made it possible to better see the coat of arms, and it may have been filled with less blood than if it was embroidered on a surcoat on the chest. Moreover, they could be both round and square, and even in the shape of … a heart!
French knights in miniature from the manuscript "Morals of Ovid", 1330 (National Library of France, Paris)
Thus, we can conclude that the southern and central regions of France played an important role in the development of knightly weapons from 1050 to 1350. Many innovations were tested here and introduced into the practice of mass use. However, even during the Hundred Years War, the French chivalry still wore chain mail that did not really protect from arrows of bows and crossbows, only their legs received cover in the form of anatomical greaves and knee pads, but such an improvement did not affect protection in battle at a distance. … It was because of the insufficient protection of their horsemen that the French lost both the Battle of Crécy in 1346 and the Battle of Poitiers in 1356 …
References:
1. Nicolle, D. French medieval armies 1000-1300. L.: Osprey Publishing (Men-at-arms series No. 231), 1991.
2. Verbruggen, J. F. The Art of Warfare in Western Europe during the Middle Ages from the Eight Century to 1340. Amsterdam - N. Y. Oxford, 1977.
3. DeVries, K. Infantry Warfare in the Early Fourteenth Century. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press, 1996.
4. Curry, A. The Hundred Years' War 1337-1453. Oxford, Osprey Publishing (Essential Histories 19), 2002.
5. Nicolle, D. Crecy, 1346: Triumph of the Black Prince, Osprey Publishing (Campaign # 71), 2000.
6. Nicolle, D. Poitiers 1356: The Capture of a King, Osprey Publishing (Campaign # 138), 2004.
7. Nicole, D. French army in the Hundred Years War / Per. from English N. A. Fenogenov. M.: LLC AST Publishing House; Astrel Publishing House LLC, 2004.
