Jet "Comet" of the Third Reich
However, the Kriegsmarine was not the only organization that paid attention to the Helmut Walter turbine. She was closely interested in the department of Hermann Goering. As in any other story, this one had its beginning. And it is connected with the name of the employee of the firm "Messerschmitt" aircraft designer Alexander Lippish - an ardent supporter of unusual designs of aircraft. Not inclined to take generally accepted decisions and opinions on faith, he set about creating a fundamentally new aircraft, in which he saw everything in a new way. According to his concept, the aircraft should be light, have as few mechanisms and auxiliary units as possible, have a form that is rational in terms of creating lift and the most powerful engine.
The traditional piston engine did not suit Lippisch, and he turned his attention to jet engines, more precisely, to rocket engines. But all the support systems known by that time with their bulky and heavy pumps, tanks, ignition and regulation systems did not suit him either. So the idea of using a self-igniting fuel gradually crystallized. Then on board it is possible to place only fuel and an oxidizer, create the most simple two-component pump and a combustion chamber with a jet nozzle.
Lippisch was lucky in this matter. And I was lucky twice. Firstly, such an engine already existed - the very Walter turbine. Secondly, the first flight with this engine was already completed in the summer of 1939 on an He-176 aircraft. Despite the fact that the results obtained, to put it mildly, were not impressive - the maximum speed that this aircraft reached after 50 seconds of engine operation was only 345 km / h - the Luftwaffe leadership considered this direction quite promising. They saw the reason for the low speed in the traditional layout of the aircraft and decided to test their assumptions on the "tailless" Lippisch. So the Messerschmitt innovator got the DFS-40 airframe and the RI-203 engine at his disposal.
To power the engine used (all very secret!) Two-component fuel, consisting of T-stoff and C-stoff. The tricky codes hid the same hydrogen peroxide and fuel - a mixture of 30% hydrazine, 57% methanol and 13% water. The catalyst solution was named Z-stoff. Despite the presence of three solutions, the fuel was considered two-component: for some reason, the catalyst solution was not considered a component.
Soon the tale will tell itself, but it will not be done soon. This Russian proverb describes the history of the creation of the interceptor fighter in the best possible way. Layout, development of new engines, flying around, training of pilots - all this delayed the process of creating a full-fledged machine until 1943. As a result, the combat version of the aircraft, the Me-163V, was a completely independent machine, inheriting only the basic layout from its predecessors. The small size of the airframe did not leave the designers a place not for retractable landing gear, nor for any spacious cockpit.
All space was occupied by fuel tanks and the rocket engine itself. And with him, too, everything was "not thank God." The Helmut Walter Veerke calculated that the RII-211 rocket engine planned for the Me-163V would have a thrust of 1,700 kg, and the fuel consumption T at full thrust would be about 3 kg per second. At the time of these calculations, the RII-211 engine existed only in the form of a model. Three consecutive runs on the ground were unsuccessful. The engine was more or less brought to flight condition only in the summer of 1943, but even then it was still considered experimental. And experiments again showed that theory and practice often disagree with each other: the fuel consumption was much higher than the calculated one - 5 kg / s at maximum thrust. So the Me-163V had a fuel reserve for only six minutes of flight at full engine thrust. At the same time, its resource was 2 hours of work, which on average gave about 20 - 30 flights. The incredible gluttony of the turbine completely changed the tactics of using these fighters: takeoff, climb, approach to the target, one attack, exit from the attack, return home (often in glider mode, since there was no fuel left for the flight). There was simply no need to talk about air battles, the whole reckoning was on swiftness and superiority in speed. Confidence in the success of the attack was also added by the Kometa's solid armament: two 30-mm cannons, plus an armored cockpit.
At least these two dates can tell about the problems that accompanied the creation of the aircraft version of the Walter engine: the first flight of the experimental model took place in 1941; The Me-163 was adopted for service in 1944. The distance, as one well-known Griboyedov character said, is of enormous scale. And this despite the fact that the designers and developers did not spit at the ceiling.
At the end of 1944, the Germans made an attempt to improve the aircraft. To increase the duration of the flight, the engine was equipped with an auxiliary combustion chamber for cruising with reduced thrust, increased the fuel reserve, instead of a detachable bogie, a conventional wheeled chassis was installed. Until the end of the war, it was possible to build and test only one sample, which received the designation Me-263.
Toothless "Viper"
The impotence of the "millennial Reich" before attacks from the air forced them to look for any, sometimes the most incredible, ways to counter the carpet bombing of the allies. The author's task is not to analyze all the curiosities with the help of which Hitler hoped to perform a miracle and save, if not Germany, then himself from inevitable death. I will dwell on only one "invention" - the Ba-349 "Nutter" ("Viper") vertical take-off interceptor. This miracle of hostile technology was created as a cheap alternative to the Me-163 "Comet" with an emphasis on mass production and waste of materials. It was planned to use the most affordable types of wood and metal for its manufacture.
In this brainchild of Erich Bachem, everything was known and everything was unusual. It was planned to take off vertically, like a rocket, with the help of four powder boosters installed on the sides of the rear fuselage. At an altitude of 150 m, the spent missiles were dropped and the flight continued due to the operation of the main engine - the Walter 109-509A LPRE - a kind of prototype of two-stage rockets (or rockets with solid-propellant boosters). Targeting was carried out first by means of a machine gun by radio, and then by the pilot manually. Armament was no less unusual: when approaching the target, the pilot fired a salvo of twenty-four 73-mm rockets mounted under the fairing in the nose of the aircraft. Then he had to separate the front of the fuselage and parachute down to the ground. The engine also had to be dropped with a parachute so that it could be reused. If you wish, you can see in this the prototype of the "Shuttle" - a modular plane with an independent return home.
Usually in this place they say that this project was ahead of the technical capabilities of the German industry, which explains the disaster of the first instance. But, in spite of such a deafening result in the literal sense of the word, the construction of another 36 "Hatters" was completed, of which 25 were tested, with only 7 in manned flight. In April, 10 "Hatters" A-series (and who only counted on the next?) Were deployed at Kirheim near Stuttgart, to repel the raids of American bombers. But the tanks of the allies, whom they waited before the bombers, did not give the brainchild of Bachem to enter the battle. The Haters and their launchers were destroyed by their own crews [14]. So argue after that with the opinion that the best air defense is our tanks at their airfields.
And yet the appeal of the liquid-propellant rocket engine was enormous. So huge that Japan bought the license to manufacture the rocket fighter. Its problems with US aviation were akin to those of Germany, so it is not surprising that they turned to the Allies for a solution. Two submarines with technical documentation and equipment samples were sent to the shores of the empire, but one of them was sunk during the transition. The Japanese recovered the missing information on their own and Mitsubishi built a prototype J8M1. On the first flight on July 7, 1945, it crashed due to engine failure during climb, after which the subject died safely and quietly.
So that the reader does not have the opinion that instead of the desired fruits, hydrogen peroxide brought only disappointments to its apologists, I will give an example, obviously, of the only case when it was useful. And it was received precisely when the designer did not try to squeeze the last drops of possibilities out of her. We are talking about a modest, but necessary part: a turbo-pump unit for supplying propellants in the A-4 rocket ("V-2"). It was impossible to supply fuel (liquid oxygen and alcohol) by creating excess pressure in the tanks for a rocket of this class, but a small and light gas turbine based on hydrogen peroxide and permanganate created a sufficient amount of steam gas to rotate a centrifugal pump.
Schematic diagram of the V-2 rocket engine 1 - hydrogen peroxide tank; 2 - a tank with sodium permanganate (catalyst for the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide); 3 - compressed air cylinders; 4 - steam and gas generator; 5 - turbine; 6 - exhaust pipe of spent steam-gas; 7 - fuel pump; 8 - oxidizer pump; 9 - reducer; 10 - oxygen supply pipelines; 11 - combustion chamber; 12 - prechambers
The turbopump unit, the steam and gas generator for the turbine and two small tanks for hydrogen peroxide and potassium permanganate were placed in the same compartment with the propulsion system. The spent steam gas, having passed through the turbine, was still hot and could perform additional work. Therefore, he was sent to a heat exchanger where he heated some liquid oxygen. Coming back to the tank, this oxygen created a small pressurization there, which somewhat facilitated the operation of the turbo pump unit and at the same time prevented the tank walls from flattening when it became empty.
The use of hydrogen peroxide was not the only possible solution: it was possible to use the main components, feeding them into the gas generator in a ratio far from optimal, and thereby ensuring a decrease in the temperature of the combustion products. But in this case, it would be necessary to solve a number of difficult problems associated with ensuring reliable ignition and maintaining a stable combustion of these components. The use of hydrogen peroxide in an average concentration (there was no need for an exorbitant power) made it possible to solve the problem simply and quickly. So the compact and unimportant mechanism made the deadly heart of a rocket filled with a ton of explosives beat.
Blow from deep
The title of Z. Pearl's book, as the author thinks, fits the title of this chapter as well as possible. Without striving for a claim to the ultimate truth, I will nevertheless allow myself to assert that there is nothing more terrible than a sudden and almost inevitable blow to the side of two or three centners of TNT, from which bulkheads burst, steel twists and multi-ton mechanisms fly off the mountings. The roar and whistle of the scorching steam become a requiem for the ship, which, in convulsions and convulsions, goes under the water, taking with it to the kingdom of Neptune those unfortunates who did not have time to jump into the water and sail away from the sinking ship. And quiet and imperceptible, like an insidious shark, the submarine slowly disappeared into the depths of the sea, carrying in its steel belly a dozen more of the same deadly gifts.
The idea of a self-propelled mine capable of combining the speed of a ship and the gigantic explosive power of an anchor "flyer" appeared a long time ago. But in metal it was realized only when sufficiently compact and powerful engines appeared, imparting high speed to it. A torpedo is not a submarine, but its engine also needs fuel and an oxidizer …
Killer torpedo …
This is how the legendary 65-76 "Whale" is called after the tragic events of August 2000. The official version says that the spontaneous explosion of the "thick torpedo" caused the death of the K-141 "Kursk" submarine. At first glance, the version, at least, deserves attention: the 65-76 torpedo is not a baby rattle at all. This is a dangerous weapon that requires special skills to handle.
One of the "weak points" of the torpedo was its propulsion unit - an impressive firing range was achieved using a propulsion unit based on hydrogen peroxide. And this means the presence of all the already familiar bouquet of delights: gigantic pressures, violently reacting components and the potential for the onset of an involuntary reaction of an explosive nature. As an argument, supporters of the "thick torpedo" version of the explosion cite the fact that all "civilized" countries of the world have abandoned torpedoes on hydrogen peroxide [9].
The author will not go into a dispute regarding the reasons for the tragic death of the Kursk, but, honoring the memory of the dead North Sea residents with a minute of silence, will pay attention to the source of the torpedo's energy.
Traditionally, the stock of oxidizer for a torpedo engine was a cylinder of air, the amount of which was determined by the power of the unit and the cruising range. The disadvantage is obvious: the ballast weight of a thick-walled cylinder, which could be turned into something more useful. To store air at pressures up to 200 kgf / cm² (196 • GPa), thick-walled steel tanks are required, the mass of which exceeds the weight of all energy components by 2, 5 - 3 times. The latter account for only about 12-15% of the total mass. For the operation of the ESU, a large amount of fresh water is required (22 - 26% of the mass of energy components), which limits the reserves of fuel and oxidizer. In addition, compressed air (21% oxygen) is not the most efficient oxidizing agent. The nitrogen present in the air is also not just ballast: it is very poorly soluble in water and therefore creates a clearly visible bubble trail 1 - 2 m wide behind the torpedo [11]. However, such torpedoes had no less obvious advantages, which were a continuation of the shortcomings, the main of which was high safety. Torpedoes operating on pure oxygen (liquid or gaseous) turned out to be more effective. They significantly reduced the trace, increased the efficiency of the oxidizer, but did not solve the problems with weight distribution (balloon and cryogenic equipment still constituted a significant part of the torpedo's weight).
In this case, hydrogen peroxide was a kind of antipode: with significantly higher energy characteristics, it was also a source of increased danger. By replacing compressed air in an air thermal torpedo with an equivalent amount of hydrogen peroxide, its travel range was increased 3 times. The table below shows the efficiency of using various types of applied and promising energy carriers in ESU torpedoes [11]:
In the ESU of a torpedo, everything happens in the traditional way: peroxide decomposes into water and oxygen, oxygen oxidizes the fuel (kerosene), the resulting steam-gas rotates the turbine shaft - and now the deadly cargo rushes to the side of the ship.
The torpedo 65-76 "Kit" is the last Soviet development of this type, which was initiated in 1947 by the study of a German torpedo that had not been "brought to mind" at the Lomonosov branch of NII-400 (later - NII "Morteplotekhnika") under the direction of chief designer D. A. … Kokryakov.
The work ended with the creation of a prototype, which was tested in Feodosia in 1954-55. During this time, Soviet designers and materials scientists had to develop mechanisms unknown to them until that time, to understand the principles and thermodynamics of their work, to adapt them for compact use in the torpedo body (one of the designers once said that in terms of complexity, torpedoes and space rockets are approaching the clock). A high-speed, open-type turbine of our own design was used as an engine. This unit spoiled a lot of blood for its creators: problems with the burnout of the combustion chamber, the search for material for the storage tank of peroxide, the development of a regulator for the supply of fuel components (kerosene, low-water hydrogen peroxide (85% concentration), seawater) - all this delayed testing and bringing the torpedo to 1957 this year the fleet received the first hydrogen peroxide torpedo 53-57 (according to some sources it had the name "Alligator", but perhaps it was the name of the project).
In 1962, an anti-ship homing torpedo was adopted. 53-61based on 53-57, and 53-61M with an improved homing system.
Torpedo developers paid attention not only to their electronic stuffing, but did not forget about its heart. And it was, as we remember, rather capricious. A new twin-chamber turbine has been developed to improve stability when power is increased. Together with the new homing filling, she received an index of 53-65. Another modernization of the engine with an increase in its reliability gave a start in the life of the modification 53-65M.
The beginning of the 70s was marked by the development of compact nuclear weapons that could be installed in the warhead of torpedoes. For such a torpedo, the symbiosis of a powerful explosive and a high-speed turbine was quite obvious, and in 1973 an unguided peroxide torpedo was adopted. 65-73 with a nuclear warhead, designed to destroy large surface ships, its groups and coastal facilities. However, the sailors were interested not only in such targets (and most likely, not at all), and three years later she received an acoustic wake guidance system, an electromagnetic detonator and an index of 65-76. The warhead also became more versatile: it could be both nuclear and carry 500 kg of conventional TNT.
And now the author would like to devote a few words to the thesis about the "begging" of the countries that are armed with hydrogen peroxide torpedoes. First, in addition to the USSR / Russia, they are in service with some other countries, for example, the Swedish heavy torpedo Tr613, developed in 1984, operating on a mixture of hydrogen peroxide and ethanol, is still in service with the Swedish Navy and the Norwegian Navy. The head of the FFV Tr61 series, the Tr61 torpedo entered service in 1967 as a heavy guided torpedo for use by surface ships, submarines and coastal batteries [12]. The main power plant uses hydrogen peroxide and ethanol to power a 12-cylinder steam engine, ensuring the torpedo is almost completely traceless. Compared to modern electric torpedoes at a similar speed, the range is 3 to 5 times greater. In 1984, the longer-range Tr613 entered service, replacing the Tr61.
But the Scandinavians were not alone in this field. The prospects for the use of hydrogen peroxide in military affairs were taken into account by the US Navy even before 1933, and before the US entered the war, strictly classified work on torpedoes was carried out at the naval torpedo station in Newport, in which hydrogen peroxide was to be used as an oxidizer. In an engine, a 50% solution of hydrogen peroxide decomposes under pressure with an aqueous solution of permanganate or another oxidizing agent, and the decomposition products are used to maintain the combustion of alcohol - as we can see, a scheme that has already become boring during the story. The engine was significantly improved during the war, but torpedoes powered by hydrogen peroxide did not find combat use in the US Navy until the end of hostilities.
So not only the "poor countries" considered peroxide as an oxidizing agent for torpedoes. Even the very respectable United States gave credit to such a rather attractive substance. The reason for the refusal to use these ESUs, as the author sees it, lay not in the cost of developing ESAs on oxygen (in the USSR, such torpedoes, which proved to be excellent in a variety of conditions, have also been successfully used for quite a long time), but in the same aggressiveness, danger and instability hydrogen peroxide: no stabilizers can guarantee 100% degradation. I don’t need to tell you how this can end, I think …
… and a torpedo for suicides
I think that such a name for the notorious and widely known Kaiten guided torpedo is more than justified. Despite the fact that the leadership of the Imperial Navy demanded the introduction of an evacuation hatch into the design of the "man-torpedo", the pilots did not use them. It was not only in the samurai spirit, but also in the understanding of a simple fact: it is impossible to survive an explosion in the water of one and a half ton ammunition, being at a distance of 40-50 meters.
The first model of the "Kaiten" "Type-1" was created on the basis of the 610-mm oxygen torpedo "Type 93" and was essentially just its enlarged and manned version, occupying a niche between the torpedo and the mini-submarine. The maximum cruising range at a speed of 30 knots was about 23 km (at a speed of 36 knots, under favorable conditions, it could travel up to 40 km). Created at the end of 1942, it was not then adopted by the fleet of the Land of the Rising Sun.
But by the beginning of 1944, the situation had changed significantly and the project of a weapon capable of realizing the principle of "every torpedo is on target" was removed from the shelf, and it had been gathering dust for almost a year and a half. It is difficult to say what made the admirals change their attitude: whether the letter from the designers of Lieutenant Nishima Sekio and Senior Lieutenant Kuroki Hiroshi, written in their own blood (the code of honor required an immediate reading of such a letter and the provision of a reasoned answer), or the catastrophic situation in the maritime theater of operations. After minor modifications "Kaiten Type 1" went into series in March 1944.
Human torpedo "Kaiten": general view and device.
But already in April 1944, work began to improve it. Moreover, it was not about modifying an existing development, but about creating a completely new development from scratch. The tactical and technical assignment issued by the fleet for the new "Kaiten Type 2" was also matched, which included ensuring a maximum speed of at least 50 knots, a cruising range of -50 km, and a diving depth of -270 m [15]. Work on the design of this "man-torpedo" was entrusted to the company "Nagasaki-Heiki KK", part of the concern "Mitsubishi".
The choice was not accidental: as mentioned above, it was this company that was actively working on various rocket systems based on hydrogen peroxide on the basis of information received from German colleagues. The result of their work was "engine No. 6", which ran on a mixture of hydrogen peroxide and hydrazine with a capacity of 1500 hp.
By December 1944, two prototypes of the new "man-torpedo" were ready for testing. The tests were carried out on a ground stand, but the demonstrated characteristics were not satisfactory to either the developer or the customer. The customer decided not to even start sea trials. As a result, the second "Kaiten" remained in the amount of two pieces [15]. Further modifications were developed for an oxygen engine - the military understood that their industry was not able to produce even such an amount of hydrogen peroxide.
It is difficult to judge the effectiveness of this weapon: Japanese propaganda during the war attributed the death of a large American ship to almost every case of the use of Kaitens (after the war, conversations on this topic for obvious reasons subsided). The Americans, on the other hand, are ready to swear on anything that their losses were paltry. I would not be surprised if after a dozen years they generally deny such things in principle.
Finest hour
The work of German designers in the design of a turbopump unit for the V-2 rocket did not go unnoticed. All the German developments in the field of missile weapons that we inherited were thoroughly researched and tested for use in domestic designs. As a result of these works, turbopump units appeared, operating on the same principle as the German prototype [16]. The American missilemen, of course, also applied this solution.
The British, who practically lost their entire empire during the Second World War, tried to cling to the remnants of their former greatness, using their trophy heritage to the fullest. Having practically no experience in the field of rocketry, they focused on what they had. As a result, they succeeded in the almost impossible: the Black Arrow rocket, which used a pair of kerosene - hydrogen peroxide and porous silver as a catalyst, provided Great Britain with a place among the space powers [17]. Alas, the further continuation of the space program for the rapidly decreasing British Empire turned out to be an extremely expensive undertaking.
Compact and fairly powerful peroxide turbines were used not only to supply fuel to combustion chambers. It was used by the Americans to orient the descent vehicle of the spacecraft "Mercury", then, for the same purpose, by the Soviet designers on the CA of the spacecraft "Soyuz".
According to its energy characteristics, peroxide as an oxidizing agent is inferior to liquid oxygen, but surpasses nitric acid oxidants. In recent years, there has been renewed interest in using concentrated hydrogen peroxide as propellant for engines of all sizes. According to experts, peroxide is most attractive when used in new developments, where previous technologies cannot compete directly. Satellites weighing 5-50 kg are just such developments [18]. However, skeptics still believe that its prospects are still dim. So, although the Soviet RD-502 LPRE (fuel pair - peroxide plus pentaboran) demonstrated a specific impulse of 3680 m / s, it remained experimental [19].
“My name is Bond. James Bond"
I think there are hardly any people who have not heard this phrase. Slightly fewer fans of "spy passions" will be able to name without hesitation all the performers of the role of the Intelligence Service super agent in chronological order. And absolutely fans will remember this unusual gadget. And at the same time, in this area, too, there was an interesting coincidence in which our world is so rich. Wendell Moore, an engineer at Bell Aerosystems and namesake of one of the most famous performers of this role, became the inventor of one of the exotic means of transportation of this eternal character - a flying (or rather, jumping) knapsack.
Structurally, this device is as simple as it is fantastic. The basis was made up of three balloons: one with compressed up to 40 atm. nitrogen (shown in yellow) and two with hydrogen peroxide (blue). The pilot turns the traction control knob and the regulator valve (3) opens. Compressed nitrogen (1) displaces liquid hydrogen peroxide (2), which is piped into the gas generator (4). There it comes into contact with a catalyst (thin silver plates coated with a layer of samarium nitrate) and decomposes. The resulting high-pressure and high-temperature vapor-gas mixture enters two pipes leaving the gas generator (the pipes are covered with a heat insulator to reduce heat loss). Then the hot gases enter the rotary jet nozzles (Laval nozzle), where they are first accelerated and then expanded, acquiring supersonic speed and creating jet thrust.
Draft regulators and nozzle control handwheels are mounted in a box mounted on the pilot's chest and connected to the units by means of cables. If it was necessary to turn to the side, the pilot rotated one of the handwheels, deflecting one nozzle. In order to fly forward or backward, the pilot rotated both handwheels at the same time.
This is how it looked in theory. But in practice, as is often the case in the biography of hydrogen peroxide, everything turned out not quite like that. Or rather, not at all: the knapsack was never able to make a normal independent flight. The maximum flight duration of the rocket pack was 21 seconds, the range was 120 meters. At the same time, the backpack was accompanied by a whole team of service personnel. For one twenty-second flight, up to 20 liters of hydrogen peroxide were consumed. According to the military, the Bell Rocket Belt was more of a spectacular toy than an efficient vehicle. The Army spent $ 150,000 under the contract with Bell Aerosystems, with Bell spending another $ 50,000. The military refused further funding for the program, the contract was terminated.
And yet he still managed to fight the "enemies of freedom and democracy", but not in the hands of the "sons of Uncle Sam", but behind the shoulders of an extra superintelligence film. But what will be his future fate, the author will not make assumptions: this is a thankless job - to predict the future …
Perhaps, at this point in the story of the military career of this ordinary and unusual substance, one can put an end to it. It was like in a fairy tale: neither long nor short; both successful and unsuccessful; both promising and hopeless. They predicted a great future for him, tried to use it in many power-generating installations, were disappointed and returned again. In general, everything is like in life …
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