100 years ago, on October 14, 1915, Bulgaria declared war on Serbia and entered the First World War on the side of the Central Powers. Bulgaria sought to establish itself as a leader in the Balkan Peninsula and to get even with its neighbors for the humiliating defeat in the Second Balkan War of 1913 ("National Catastrophe"), for the loss of territories. The Bulgarian elite dreamed of creating a "Great Bulgaria" with the capture of the northern coast of the Aegean Sea with Thessaloniki, all of Macedonia and Dobrudja up to the Danube estuary, with access to the Sea of Marmara. As a result, the Slavic state, most of whose population sympathized with the Russians, began to fight on the side of Germany and Austria. Bulgaria's entry into the war on the side of the Central Powers predetermined the defeat of Serbia.
Background. From Liberation to the Second Balkan War
The Russian army gave Bulgaria freedom from the Ottoman yoke. Following the results of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. Bulgaria, with its center in Sofia, was declared an autonomous principality, effectively becoming an independent state. However, a significant part of historical Bulgaria is the Bulgarian lands south of the Balkans (Eastern Rumelia centered in Philippopolis); and Macedonia - lands up to the Adriatic and the Aegean Sea, remained behind the Ottoman Empire. This did not suit Sophia. The Bulgarian leadership set a course for the unification of Bulgaria and Rumelia. At the same time, St. Petersburg did not want to "rock the boat" in the Balkans and did not support Sofia. Therefore, Sofia gradually began to look for allies in the West.
As a result of the popular uprising in Eastern Rumelia on September 8, 1885, its unification with Bulgaria was proclaimed in Philippopolis (Plovdiv). This event triggered the Bulgarian crisis. Vienna, fearing the appearance of a powerful Slavic power in the Balkans, which would be oriented towards Russia, pushed Serbia to go to war with the still fragile principality of Bulgaria, promising Serbia territorial acquisitions in the Western Balkans. Serbia, in order to prevent the strengthening of Bulgaria and having a number of territorial disputes with the Bulgarians, declared war on Bulgaria. Serbia hoped that Turkey would support it. But the Ottomans were afraid of the pressure of the great powers, especially Russia, and did not enter the war. The Serbs underestimated the enemy and were defeated. Only the intervention of Austria-Hungary, which warned Bulgaria that if the Bulgarian army did not retreat, Austria would intervene in the war, stopped the Bulgarian offensive. In February 1886, a peace treaty was signed in Bucharest, no territorial changes were made. However, the great powers resigned themselves to the unification of Bulgaria. At the same time, Sofia was very offended by Russia.
In Sofia itself, a pro-Russian coup took place and Prince Alexander, who supported the policy of uniting Bulgaria and was oriented towards Austria, was overthrown. The new prince was again chosen by a man who was also not a supporter of Russia - Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, a protege of Austria-Hungary. Ferdinand claimed the leadership of Bulgaria in the Balkans, considering it the main contender for the European inheritance of the Ottoman Empire, which irritated Serbia and Russia. Therefore, he relied on the support of Austria and Germany.
Thus, Bulgaria met the XX century, being already a completely different country than after liberation from the Turkish yoke. The struggle between Russophobes and Russophiles in the Bulgarian elite ended in victory for the Russophobes. Prince Ferdinand I established a "personal regime" based on fear and corruption. Russophobia even touched the memory of the national liberation movement of 1876-1878, sacred for the Bulgarians. The memorial church of St. Alexander Nevsky, built in 1912 in honor of the Russian soldiers-liberators and standing unanimated for three years, was renamed by a government decree in 1915 into the Cathedral Church of Saints Cyril and Methodius with the following argumentation: “The name of Alexander Nevsky … never did not meet the people's aspirations and ideals."
The Berlin Peace Treaty of 1878 granted Bulgaria the status of a protectorate of the Ottoman Empire. Although in reality the country conducted its own foreign policy and did not submit to Istanbul for a long time, the status of a dependent state infringed upon the national pride of the Bulgarians. After a coup took place in Turkey on July 11, 1908 and the Young Turk government came to power, Sofia decided that the time had come to throw off the formal status of a dependent territory. Bulgaria has shown unequivocally that it wants complete independence. In response, the Ottoman Empire recalled its ambassador from Sofia. The Balkans were again on the brink of war.
In September 1908, several secret meetings between Ferdinand I and the Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph took place in Sofia. Vienna supported the position of Sofia, since at that time itself was preparing for the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and she needed to distract Russia. On September 22, 1908, a solemn ceremony of proclamation of a new state - the Kingdom of Bulgaria took place. Ferdinand was declared king.
Despite a series of severe defeats of the Ottoman Empire, it still had large possessions in the Balkans, where millions of Bulgarians, Serbs and Greeks lived. The opponents of the Ottoman Empire decided to unite in order to finally oust Turkey from Europe and restore the integrity of their territories. Bulgaria, Serbia and Greece wanted to include in their composition the historical lands and, moreover, to achieve the greatest expansion of the borders of their powers (the projects of "Greater Greece", "Greater Serbia" and "Greater Bulgaria"). These projects came into conflict with each other, since Bulgaria and Greece together claimed Thrace; Greece, Serbia and Bulgaria - to Macedonia, Serbia - to the Adriatic Sea. Greece, Serbia and Montenegro were going to carry out the partition of Albania. However, so far they had a common enemy - Turkey. Alone, neither Bulgaria, nor Serbia, nor Greece could resist the Ottoman Empire, which, despite its decline, still remained a great power with a large army. In March 1912, an agreement was signed between Serbia and Bulgaria on the creation of a defensive alliance. Greece joined the union in May. Later, the union treaty was signed by Montenegro and Romania.
On October 8, 1912, the First Balkan War began. In May 1913, the war ended with the complete victory of the Balkan allies over the Ottoman Empire. Under the London Peace Treaty, Bulgaria acquired the province of Thrace with access to the Aegean Sea, as well as part of Macedonia. The first Balkan War allowed Bulgaria to create a fairly strong army with modern artillery and the first aviation detachment. The young Bulgarian industry was actively developing. Tsar Ferdinand was generally open to everything new and tried to develop the country.
The London Treaty opened the way for a new war. The Ottoman Empire gave up most of its possessions in Europe in favor of the Balkan Union, but the member states of the union had to themselves, without foreign mediation, divide the conquered territories. None of the founding states of the Balkan Union were fully satisfied with the London Agreement and the result of the war. Serbia did not gain access to the Adriatic due to the formation of the new state of Albania, Montenegro did not occupy Shkoder, Greece did not annex Thrace and part of Albania. Bulgaria was unhappy with the claims of the Serbs in Macedonia. There were a lot of territories where Bulgarians lived interspersed with Romanians, Serbs or Greeks. There was a dispute over the "Macedonians", the Serbs considered them Serbs, the Bulgarians - Bulgarians. In Greece, Macedonia was considered part of ancient Greece. The division of the booty led to a new war.
Because of Albania, the war did not start, since the new independent state was under the protectorate of the great powers (primarily Austria-Hungary and Italy). Therefore, the main stumbling block was Macedonia and Thrace. Bulgaria and Serbia claimed Macedonia, Greece and Bulgaria claimed Thrace. Germany and Austria-Hungary played an important role in unleashing the war, which wanted to destroy the Balkan Union and lure its participants to their camp on the eve of a big war in Europe. German and Austrian diplomats in Belgrade persuaded the Serbian king to go to war with Bulgaria and Greece. They say that since Serbia was unable to gain access to the Adriatic, it can compensate for this by capturing Macedonia and Thessaloniki. Thus, Serbia would receive access to the Aegean Sea. In Sofia, the envoys from Vienna and Berlin said the same thing, but this time to Tsar Ferdinand. Austria-Hungary promised support to Bulgaria in the Macedonian issue.
As a result, Serbia began to prepare for war and entered into an anti-Bulgarian alliance with Greece, which did not want the strengthening of Bulgaria and already had a common border with Serbia. Montenegro has become a traditional ally of Serbia. British diplomat George Buchanan said about the outbreak of the war: "Bulgaria was responsible for the opening of hostile actions, Greece and Serbia fully deserved the accusation of deliberate provocation." Indeed, it was an unjust war, all participants were aggressors to one degree or another.
In the summer of 1913 Bulgaria started the war, hoping for the complete capture of Macedonia. Initially, the Bulgarians were successful, but then they were stopped. Serbian-Greek troops came to their senses from the first surprise attack and launched a counteroffensive. In addition, Romania (claiming land in Southern Dobruja) and Turkey decided to take advantage of this opportunity. They opposed Bulgaria. There was almost no resistance to the Romanian troops, since all the Bulgarian forces were located far in the west of the country - on the Serbian-Bulgarian and Greco-Bulgarian fronts. The Turks captured Eastern Thrace and Adrianople. Bulgaria suffered a complete defeat.
On August 10, 1913, the Bucharest Peace Treaty was signed. Bulgaria, as the losing side in the war, lost almost all the territories captured during the First Balkan War and, in addition, Southern Dobrudja, which Romania received. On September 29, 1913, the Treaty of Constantinople was signed. The Ottoman Empire returned part of Eastern Thrace and the city of Adrianople (Edirne).
It is clear that Sofia was unhappy with this outcome of the war and wanted revenge. It is believed that the Bulgarian Tsar Ferdinand I, after the signing of the treaty, he uttered the phrase: "My revenge will be terrible." Among the losers was also Russia, which suffered a major diplomatic defeat in the Balkans. Slavic "brothers" staged a massacre to the delight of Germany and Austria. The Balkan knot was not unraveled, but only added new reasons for the big war. So Serbia, on the wave of victory, became radicalized. Belgrade dreamed of "Great Serbia", which was to include the lands of the now Austro-Hungarian Empire. In Vienna, they were very worried and were looking for an opportunity to "neutralize" Serbia. " Revanchist Bulgaria dreamed of restoring the borders of May 1913, for which it was necessary to defeat Serbia. In addition, the Bulgarians had territorial claims against Romania, Greece and Turkey.
Bulgarian king Ferdinand I
On the road to war
The defeat in the Second Balkan War was regarded in Bulgaria as the "First National Catastrophe". Vasil Radoslavov became Prime Minister, who in foreign policy was guided by Germany and Austria-Hungary. Ferdinand I supported this course. In Bulgaria, a "purge" was carried out among the pro-Russian-minded generals. So, the former chief of the Bulgarian General Staff, commander of the Bulgarian army during the First Balkan War and assistant to the commander-in-chief during the Second Balkan War, General Radko-Dmitriev was sent as an envoy to Russia (and during the First World War he will fight on the side of Russia).
The ideas of revanchism were actively cultivated in the Bulgarian society. Many leading newspapers carried out anti-Serb and anti-Russian propaganda and were pro-German. The press promoted the idea that Bulgaria had lost the war, since the Entente countries (including Russia) supported Bulgaria's enemies - Greece and Serbia. Therefore, in the future confrontation, in order to return the lost territories, it is necessary to support Germany. Politicians have often openly declared the need for revenge. In addition, the country was flooded with forced refugees from Macedonia, Thrace, South Dobrudja, which increased people's discontent and the position of revanchists. However, not everyone in Bulgaria believed that their country should get involved in a world war. There were still many supporters of an alliance with Russia in Bulgaria.
Before the outbreak of the First World War, the Austro-Hungarian Empire showed the greatest interest in Bulgaria, frightened by the growing power of Serbia. Bulgaria also considered Serbia as its main adversary, which could lead to the formation of the Austro-Bulgarian union. However, at this time Berlin did not share the aspirations of Vienna. Kaiser Wilhelm II believed that Bulgaria was severely defeated and its army lost its combat effectiveness. Germany was more interested in Romania and Greece. Therefore, Berlin, before the start of the war, for a long time did not give Vienna permission to take active actions against Bulgaria. Russia at this time unsuccessfully tried to restore its influence in Bulgaria. Petersburg offered to transfer to Bulgaria the important port of Kavala on the Aegean coast, but France and Great Britain did not support this initiative. All attempts by Russian diplomats to restore the Balkan Union have failed.
Finances played an important role in the behavior of Bulgaria. During the Balkan Wars, Sofia ran into large debts. The defeat led to serious economic and financial problems. At the end of 1913, the Bulgarians began to look for the possibility of obtaining a large loan abroad. Envoys were sent to Paris, Vienna and Berlin. During the negotiations in Paris, the Bulgarians were given to understand that the loan is possible only if the Radoslavov cabinet refuses to pursue rapprochement with Austria-Hungary and Germany. Austria and Germany went to meet Bulgaria halfway.
In mid-June 1914, the Bulgarian leadership decided to conclude an agreement with Austrian and German financiers. To disrupt this agreement, Russia and France sent a loan offer of 500 million francs to the Bulgarian government without any political conditions or burdensome attachments. However, Sofia, despite the profitability of the French proposal, refused it. At the same time, the Bulgarian government hid from the public the fact that France is offering a loan without conditions. As a result, the German bankers provided Bulgaria with a loan of 500 million francs. Lenders received the right to build a railway to the Aegean coast, a free concession for the operation of coal mines, Bulgaria had to spend part of the money on a military order at the enterprises of Germany and Austria-Hungary. After the signing of the agreement, German influence in Bulgaria increased significantly.
Head of the Government of Bulgaria Vasil Radoslavov
Bulgaria during World War I
The Austro-Serbian conflict that began after the Sarajevo murder made Sofia happy. There is a hope that this conflict will solve the Bulgarian territorial problems. In addition, the outbreak of World War II increased the importance of Bulgaria for the opposing alliances. For each of the two coalitions, the Bulgarian army and resources were essential. At maximum tension, Bulgaria could put up an army of half a million. Bulgaria occupied an important military-strategic position in the region: the country had access to the Black and Aegean Seas, had a common border with all significant Balkan states. For Germany and Austria, Bulgaria was important as a strategic communication to Turkey and the Middle East. Bulgaria, according to Vienna and Berlin, could neutralize Romania and Greece and help in the defeat of Serbia. Especially after the failure of the Austrian army's attempts to defeat Serbia during the 1914 campaign. For Atlanta, Bulgaria was a corridor connecting Serbia with Russia. Bulgaria's transition to the side of the Entente could lead to the severing of ties between Germany, Austria and Turkey, increase pressure on the Ottoman Empire and strengthen Serbia.
On August 1, 1914, Radoslavov announced in the People's Assembly the determination of the Bulgarian government to maintain neutrality until the very end of the war. In fact, it was a hoax. Sofia began bargaining with Berlin and Vienna. Ferdinand and the Bulgarian government did not intend to immediately rush into battle. They used "wise neutrality" to bargain for entry into the war the highest price and to see which side the military luck is leaning on. In addition, Bulgaria was exhausted by previous wars, it was necessary to recuperate. And it was not easy to rouse the Bulgarian people to a new war. In addition, neighboring Greece and Romania took a neutral position.
On August 5, 1914, the envoy of Russia to Sofia A. Savinsky handed over to Tsar Ferdinand a document in which Bulgaria was invited to join Russia in the name of "… the realization of the people's ideals." Sofia declared strict neutrality. I must say that the Entente powers had good trump cards - they could seduce Sofia with the prospects of a possible division of the Turkish heritage. However, the weakness of the unity of the positions of France, Russia and England affected. Britain quite often refrained from actively supporting the position of the representatives of Russia and France in Sofia.
In this regard, it was easier for Vienna and Berlin to work out a common position and jointly put pressure on Turkey to make concessions to Bulgaria. True, they had to take a restrained position in relation to the Balkan countries, which so far remained neutral, so as not to push them into the Entente camp. As a result, the struggle for Bulgaria dragged on.
On November 1, 1914, Bulgaria officially confirmed its neutrality after the Ottoman Empire entered the war. Sofia took into account the successes of Serbia in the fight against Austria-Hungary, the neutrality of Greece and Romania, and the successes of the Russian army in Austrian Galicia. In addition, the Bulgarian society was not enthusiastic about the possible participation of Bulgaria in the European conflict. At the same time, the Bulgarian government was still hostile to Russia. Petersburg's request to pass through the territory of Bulgaria Russian transports with grain for Serbia, Radoslavov's cabinet categorically rejected. In turn, transports from Germany and Austria-Hungary followed through Bulgaria to the Ottoman Empire.
At the initiative of Russia, the Entente diplomats began to discuss the size of possible territorial increments in Bulgaria, which could be used to lure Sofia into their camp. In addition to Turkish territories, the Entente tried to persuade Serbia to cede part of Macedonia. The traditional British-Russian contradictions in the Balkans and the straits, as well as Serbia's intransigence, did not allow for a long time to develop a common position on this issue. Only on December 7, 1914, a document was handed over to Sofia, which stated that if Bulgaria remained neutral in the war, it would receive insignificant territorial compensation in Eastern Thrace at the expense of Turkey. If Bulgaria enters the war on the side of the Entente, then she was promised the expansion of territorial increments in Eastern Thrace. Sofia promised to remain neutral, although she continued active negotiations with Berlin and Vienna.
At the end of 1914, the Bulgarian government was in no hurry to enter the war. The failure of the German offensive in France, the successes of the Russian troops in the fight against Austria-Hungary and the people's reluctance to fight had a sobering effect on the highest ruling circles of the Third Bulgarian Kingdom. At the same time, the right-wing political forces declared about the "leading role of Bulgaria in the Balkans" and plans to create a "Great Bulgaria", with access to three seas - the Black, Marmara and Aegean.
In January 1915, Austria-Hungary and Germany, despite the severity of the war, provided new loans to Bulgaria in the amount of 150 million marks. At the same time, the Germans and Austrians financed Bulgarian newspapers, bribed politicians and provided financial assistance to pro-German political forces (the same policy was carried out in Greece). Therefore Sofia in February 1915 again allowed the transit of goods from Austria and Germany to Turkey. Bulgaria made exciting offers at the expense of Turkey, the Turks were offered large compensation at the expense of Serbia.
The beginning of the Dardanelles operation contributed to the strengthening of the interest of Britain and France in Bulgaria. The Entente powers began funding newspapers and politicians in Bulgaria, following the example of Austria-Hungary and Germany. Envoys were sent to Sofia who tried to convince Ferdinand of the advantages of an alliance with the Entente. Bulgaria was offered concessions at the expense of Turkey, access to the Sea of Marmara near Rodosto, the opportunity to return part of Dobruzhdi (Romanian possessions), indicating that Romania will receive a reciprocal part of Hungary, whose population is Romanian, after the war. However, Bulgaria demanded more parts of Serbian and Greek Macedonia with the port of Kavala.
The “Bulgarian Bride” still had doubts. The Bulgarian government was ready to support the Central Powers. However, in Bulgaria they were still afraid of Russia. At the same time, Sofia was annoyed with Russia's plans to get Constantinople. Therefore, the bargaining continued.
Bulgarian units go to war
Bulgaria decides to go to war
In the spring of 1915 Bulgaria continued to maintain "wise neutrality", which enabled the politicians of this country to consistently sell themselves either to Germany or to the Entente. Waiting for and lavishing declarations of benevolent neutrality, Bulgarian politicians, like the Greeks, crumbled in assurances of friendship to the Anglo-French, while they themselves inclined to the side of Germany. As a result, Britain and France, confident that Bulgaria would not oppose the Entente, did not speed up the negotiations.
Only on May 29, 1915, the representatives of the Entente handed over to the Bulgarian government a document in which Bulgaria again proposed to take the side of England, France and Russia. The Entente countries guaranteed the return of Eastern Thrace at the expense of Turkey to the Bulgarian kingdom. The allies promised to start negotiations with Belgrade, Athens and Bucharest on the transfer of some part of Vardar Macedonia, Aegean Macedonia and Southern Dobruja to Bulgaria. On June 14, the Bulgarian government proposed to clearly define the boundaries of the territories in Vardar and Aegean Macedonia, which should become part of Bulgaria. However, the Entente could not do this. If Serbia, forced by military circumstances, was ready to make concessions, Greece and Romania did not want to concede. In addition, there was still no agreement among the representatives of France, Great Britain and Russia about how to involve Bulgaria in the war on the side of the Entente powers.
Germany and Austria-Hungary were more generous. They unequivocally stated that in the event of Bulgaria's action on their side, Sofia will receive all of Macedonia, Thrace, as well as Southern Dobrudja (if Romania enters the war on the side of the Entente). In addition, Germany has pledged to provide Bulgaria with a war loan in the amount of 500 million marks. Germany also managed to reconcile Bulgaria and Turkey. The Germans prepared a treaty that satisfied the Bulgarians at the expense of Turkey. In addition, the situation on the fronts was unfavorable for the Entente. England and France failed the Dardanelles operation. Russia suffered a heavy defeat on the Eastern Front, lost Galicia, Russian Poland. Anglo-French troops were passive on the Western Front. This convinced the Bulgarian leadership that the Central Powers were gaining the upper hand in the war, that it was time to go into the war and get their share of the booty.
On September 6, 1915, in the capital of Bulgaria, Sofia, a convention was signed between Germany and Bulgaria. Bulgaria was represented by the head of the government Vasil Radoslavov, and Germany - by Georg Michaelis. Under the terms of the convention. Germany and Austria-Hungary were to deploy six infantry divisions each within 30 days, and Bulgaria - four divisions within 35 days against Serbia. General command over the Austro-German-Bulgarian grouping was to be assumed by the German general August von Mackensen. In addition, it was planned to deploy a mixed German infantry brigade in Varna and Burgas and to send submarines to the Black Sea. Bulgaria pledged to mobilize four divisions by September 21 and October 11 to begin an operation in Serbian Macedonia. Germany has pledged to provide Bulgaria with financial and material support. Bulgaria opened its territory for the transit of goods from the Ottoman Empire to Germany and vice versa.
Only when Bulgaria had already determined its position did the Entente powers get alarmed and began to make more tempting offers. So, on September 15, 1915, the Entente offered Bulgaria the territory of Macedonia, which was ceded to Serbia as a result of the 1913 war. The Serbs, having learned about the preparation of a large offensive operation by the Austro-German troops, were also excited and agreed to all the sacrifices that Britain and France proposed to make. However, the proposals, firstly, were late, and secondly, they were significantly less profitable than those made by the Central Powers. Therefore, the Bulgarian government replied, in order to procrastinate, that it would refer the matter to the consideration of the Bulgarian king Ferdinand. Although an alliance with Germany had already been concluded, and the process of mobilizing the Bulgarian army was under way.
Belgrade asked in vain for permission to attack Bulgaria until she finished mobilizing, but the French still hoped for the success of the negotiations and the Serbs were refused. As a result, Bulgaria calmly carried out its mobilization, continuing to assure the Entente of its neutrality. The Russians put an end to this stupid situation by sending an ultimatum to Sofia on October 3, 1915, demanding the removal of German and Austrian officers from the Bulgarian army within 24 hours and an end to the concentration of Bulgarian troops on the Serbian border. The result of this ultimatum was the issuance of their passports on October 4, 1915 to the Russian, British and French representatives.
On October 14, Bulgaria declared war on Serbia. The Bulgarians had no claims either to Russia, or to England and France, but proceeding from the principle of solidarity, they themselves declared war on Bulgaria in the following days. October 15 300-th. the Bulgarian army crossed the border with Serbia along its entire length. The defeat of Serbia was a foregone conclusion - the country had been at war with the Austro-Hungarian Empire for over a year and was exhausted by the war and the blockade. In addition, a few days earlier, German units had already entered Belgrade. Greece and Romania have retained their neutrality.
Bulgarian cavalry in the captured Serbian city. October 22, 1915
