Francis Hayman, Robert Clive and Mir Jafar after the Battle of Plessis, 1757
The Seven Years' War is considered by many historians to be the first truly global war. Unlike conflicts due to all kinds of "legacy", in the events of 1756-1763. almost all major political players took part. The fighting took place not only on the fields of Europe generously fertilized with human blood, where soldiers in multi-colored uniforms with bullets and bayonets proved the right of their monarch to a piece of worldly glory, but also touched the overseas lands. The kings became cramped in the Old World, and now they recklessly divided the colonies. This process captured not only the troops with the few settlers and employees of the local administration so far, but also the local population. The Indians of Canada, the multinational inhabitants of Hindustan, the natives of distant archipelagos were involved in the game of the "big white masters", for whom they were even cheaper and more readily blown away consumables than their own subjects.
England and France used the new war to continue their uncompromising dispute. Foggy Albion since the time of the confrontation with the skilled and wealthy Dutchmen has grown significantly stronger, acquired a powerful fleet and colonies. The topic of leisurely conversations by the fireplace was the confrontation between Prince Rupert and de Ruyter, the campaigns of Drake and Reilly were overgrown with legends and fables. The 18th century was a time of struggle with a new rival, no less proud islanders thirsty for gold and glory. During the Seven Years War, prim London and splendid Versailles challenged each other for the right to rule in North America and India. And Europe, shrouded in gunpowder smoke, where the battalions of Frederick II hired for English gold marched to the squeak of flutes and the measured rumble of drums, was only a background for the unfolding colonial struggle.
France began to show interest in distant and exotic India as early as the 16th century. During the time of Francis I, merchants from Rouen equipped two ships for a voyage to the eastern countries. They left Le Havre to disappear without a trace. Then France seethed with Huguenot wars, and there was no time for overseas trade. Penetration into regions rich in spices and other expensive goods acquired a more organized character in the era of Cardinal Richelieu. Under his patronage, the French East India Company was created, which, like the English and Dutch structures, was supposed to concentrate trade with the East in its hands. However, the Fronda stood in the way of the development of the colonial expansion, and the state funding of the company stopped. Only when the tremors of domestic shocks subsided, France was able to focus on distant countries.
Now the main inspirer and mover of the eastern and all overseas expansion as a whole was the right hand of Louis XIV, the actual head of government, Jean Baptiste Colbert, whose services to the kingdom of the Golden Lilies can hardly be overestimated. He reorganized the miserable East India Company into a new corporation called the East India Company. Exotic spices and other goods were already pouring into Europe, turning into densely packed golden chests. France, like neighboring states, needed to take an active part in such a profitable business. Colbert was a master of persuasion and a man of strategic mind, which greatly helped in the collection and concentration of start-up capital - Louis XIV donated 3 million livres to the enterprise. Large contributions were made by nobles and merchants. In 1664, the company was finally founded already at the state level with a capital of 8 million livres. She was granted extensive rights and powers, including a monopoly on trade east of the Cape of Good Hope. Colbert himself became the first president of the new company.
Although France was clearly too late to start in trade with the East, the new enterprise began to develop rapidly, receiving support directly from the court. Already in 1667, the first expedition under the command of François Caron was sent to India, which in 1668 managed to achieve the goal and found the first French trading post on the Indian subcontinent near Surat. In the following years, the number of strongholds in India steadily increased. In 1674, the company managed to obtain from the Sultan of Bijapur the territory on which the largest colony, Pondicherry, was founded. Soon it was she who became the de facto administrative center of all French colonies in India, picking up the baton from Surat. In Pondicherry, along with a huge market, handicraft and weaving workshops functioned with might and main. By the end of the 17th century, France had a fairly large number of enclaves in this region, but they were all scattered over a large territory and therefore were autonomous.
However, it soon became clear that the stable trade and financial existence of French India had lost its position of "quiet business". And the problem was not in the local warring and intriguing sultans, rajahs, native princelings and other leaders of the "middle and lower level". The French were by no means the only white people in India. Having begun their colonial marathon half a century earlier, England and Holland have already firmly taken root in this eastern country. It was not at all idle tourism that prompted the Amsterdam and London businessmen to master the routes to the Indian Ocean, in whose considerable water area it was already cramped even for these respectable gentlemen. Therefore, the emergence of new people who wanted to bite off the Indian pie, generously seasoned with spices, stuffed with goods scarce in Europe, was perceived by the British and Dutch without the slightest sign of enthusiasm. The trading companies of these countries, which are a state within a state, were involved in a stubborn and uncompromising struggle, unceremoniously nudged with their elbows and, without much hesitation, used their fists. Fortunately, in Europe, they were launched no less willingly. Already in August 1693, during the war of the Augsburg League, Pondicherry was besieged by the Dutch and, after a two-week siege, was forced to surrender. Under the terms of peace, France was returned to its largest enclave in India, and it soon flourished again.
Active confrontation unfolded in the local lands and waters during the War of the Austrian Succession in 1744-1748. By the beginning of the conflict, the French had a strong squadron of ten ships in the Indian Ocean, but could not take advantage of their advantage. The French East India Company generously concluded an armistice with its British colleagues, they say, there is a war in Europe, but we have business. The British readily agreed, knowing about the imminent arrival of reinforcements from the mother country. The text of the truce emphasized that it applies only to the ships and armed contingents of the British company, but not to government forces. In 1745, an English squadron arrived in the Indian Ocean and began hunting French merchant ships. “Business partners” feigned sympathy and restrained indignation, while making a helpless gesture: this is not us, but the government, which does not understand the intricacies of business relations. The governor of the French-owned island of Ile-de-France (Mauritius), Bertrand de La Bourdonnay, who had a ship connection at his disposal, finally spat on the fake and completely formal truce and in September 1746 landed a landing at Madras, which was owned by the British. The siege lasted five days, after which the British enclave capitulated. Instead of destroying Madras, inflicting a crushing blow on British trade in India, or completely expelling the enlightened navigators from the city and making it already a French colony, La Bourdonnay limited himself to a ransom of £ 9 million in money and £ 13 million in goods. The French squadron, stricken by storms, soon returned to Europe. The governor of French India, Joseph Duplex, reasonably considered La Bourdonnay's actions insufficient and, having occupied Madras, proceeded to strengthen it. The Treaty of Aachen, signed in 1748, returned the status quo to the borders of the possessions - the city was returned in exchange for the fortress of Louisburg in Canada. The English East India Company continued to strengthen on the peninsula, while the resources of the French were very limited.
There were no new Colbert and were not foreseen, Louis XV spent his time hunting, balls and carefree communication with metressa. Madame Pompadour, the king's favorite, ruled at court in a businesslike manner. With the outward splendor and splendor, France was weakened, and with it her colonial empire melted away.
Conflict over Arcot
Robert Clive
The strengthened English East India Company expanded its sphere of influence. The cannons of the Seven Years' War had not yet rumbled in Europe, but far from it, the competing sides were already openly crossing swords. In 1751, the French decided to actively intervene in the struggle of indigenous groups for power. This was the time of another and quite frequent in the local lands a get-together, when two nabobs fought for power in the south-west of Hindustan. In the summer of 1751, the Marquis Charles de Bussy, with about 2,000 soldiers - armed natives and a small French contingent - came to the aid of Chanda Sahib, "the candidate of the correct party", who besieged his pro-English opponent Mohammed Ali in Trichinopoli. The addition of a French detachment would bring the Sahib's army up to 10,000 men and would dramatically increase his chances of success. This factor would have serious consequences for the positions of the British East India Company, and the role of a simple observer clearly did not suit her.
From the British Fort St. David, located south of Pondicherry on the shores of the Bay of Bengal, an armed detachment with supplies for their Indian protégé came out. The squad included a young man named Robert Clive. A few words should be said about this gentleman, whose immediate descendants, inspired by the works of Kipling, will "bear a heavy burden" to wild and not so hordes. Mr. Clive began his career with the East India Company as a simple office clerk. Born in 1725, he was sent to India as an 18-year-old boy. In 1746 he volunteered for the troops of the East India Company and took part in hostilities against the French. When the air again clearly smelled of a mixture of gunpowder and steel, in 1751 he again entered military service. Clive had a reputation for being heavy and prone to outbursts of anger - a quiet office life with the study of the depth of an inkwell attracted him much less than hiking in the tropical jungle. Having overcome several hundred kilometers in difficult terrain, the detachment managed to reach Trichinopoli. On the spot, it turned out that the position of the local garrison, numbering no more than 1600 people, leaves much to be desired. Clive was assigned to return to St. David and report the dire state of affairs. The indefatigable Englishman makes a return march and successfully returns to the fort.
Clive proposed to the governor a plan for overcoming the crisis. Instead of making his way through the jungle again to the deep territory of Trichinopoli, the best option was to strike at the immediate possession of Chanda Sahib - the city of Arcot, almost a hundred kilometers from Madras. Clive's plan was approved, and nearly 300 European soldiers and 300 sepoys entered his command. The detachment had three field guns. On September 1, 1751, the British approached Arcot, but only to find that the local authorities, together with the garrison, had fled in all directions. The banner of Mohammed Ali was raised over the new palace of Chanda Sahib, and Clive began to prepare for a possible reflection of the natives who were coming to their senses.
Arcot siege scheme
The Sahib enthusiastically fell for a simple trick - the prospect of losing his own palace with all the good was an essential argument. He sent his relative Reza Sahib to Arcot along with 4 thousand soldiers and 150 French. On September 23, this army had already approached the city. Clive gave the enemy a battle in narrow and barricaded streets, where many French were killed, and then, with very limited forces, did not play Duke of Marlborough and took refuge in the citadel, which Reza Sahib began to besiege. The siege was long: French guns arrived from Pondicherry along with crews and began regular bombing of Clive's positions, but he did not surrender and made sorties. Soon, rumors began to reach the besiegers that the Maratha Rajah with almost 6 thousand soldiers was coming to the aid of the British, and this news forced Reza Sahib to undertake a decisive assault on November 24, which was successfully repulsed. After a 50-day siege, the Indians and French broke camp and retreated. The victory at Arcot raised the prestige of England and Clive himself. Local rajahs and princes thought hard about which of the white aliens is stronger, ruthless and successful. And so far, the British have maintained a confident leadership. In 1752, Chanda Sahib died suddenly, and Mohammed Ali took his place without hindrance. It should be noted that in Europe at this time between France and England there was formally peace.
Bengal crisis
Siraj-ud-Daul in front of the English positions
The positions of the British East India Company were steadily strengthening, although the competition with the French was more like neutrality armed to the teeth. Not everything was easy in relations with the local Indian nobility, whose moods were far from constant. In 1756, tensions escalated in Bengal. Previously, the British could trade there without hindrance, but the new nabob Siraj-ud-Daul decided to make some amendments. Having received information about the very large profits of British and other European trading companies, enriching literally under his nose, without paying any taxes from this, the ruler of Bengal lost his peace and began to hatch plans to bring the malicious defaulters to justice.
Business people, who came to know about some concern of the nabob about the amount of their income, also began to worry and, out of harm's way, began to strengthen forts and trading posts. Moreover, this was done not only by the British, but also by the French. Siraj-ud-Daul was alarmed: not only did the Europeans collect generous profits in his country, they also dared to build fortifications that could be used for military operations. The nabob demanded an end to the unauthorized fortification. The French, grumbling, agreed, but the British, whose economic positions in Bengal were more solid, refused to weaken their fortifications in Calcutta. Gentlemen sincerely believed that where the flag of St. George flutters, there is no place for some pitiful claims of local princelings, even if it is their, local, land.
Seeing the persistence of the British, Siraj-ud-Daul decided to clarify the differences that had arisen. At the head of a strong military force, he approached Calcutta, surrounded Fort William, which belonged to the British, and demanded his surrender. After a two-day siege, the trading post surrendered. All Europeans were arrested and placed in a local prison. It was a hot tropical summer, and on the next night, some of the prisoners, tightly concentrated in a cramped room, died of suffocation and heatstroke. For Hindus, this practice of detention was the norm, but they did not calculate that the local climate was much less comfortable for Europeans. It is likely that the nabob was not even told in what conditions the British prisoners were placed. Nevertheless, the story had a very turbulent continuation. On August 16, 1756, news of the actual expulsion of the British from Calcutta reached Madras in a highly decorated form. The local leadership, choking with heat and anger, decided to restore colonial order on the territory of the company and explain to the local ignoramuses how expensive and, most importantly, dangerous to offend noble gentlemen. To teach the intricacies of good manners, 600 armed Europeans from the own armed forces of the East India Company, three companies of army infantry and 900 sepoys were brought in. The expedition was led by Robert Clive, who had recently returned from England, treated kindly after the Arcot Victoria. Having embarked on ships, the British began their journey. On January 2, 1757, they approached Calcutta along the Hooghly River (one of the tributaries of the Ganges). A landing was made, the Indian garrison, when the British approached, quickly fled.
It was not enough for the practical English to restore their positions in Bengal - the local ruler, with his completely outrageous attempts to control the East India business there, was a hindrance for them. Clive strengthened himself and put in order the fortifications of Calcutta and Fort William. Siraj, meanwhile, cooled down a bit and offered the British a compromise solution to the problem: to keep their trade intact in exchange for replacing the local English governor. However, the concentration under his command of an army of almost 40 thousand people gave him confidence, and the nabob, fully armed, approached Calcutta. On February 5, 1757, when it became obvious that the negotiation phase was over, Clive decided to attack first. With more than 500 infantry and artillerymen, about 600 armed sailors from the crews of the ships, almost 900 sepoys, the British commander attacked the enemy camp. An attempt at a counterattack by the Indian cavalry ended in failure, the Nabob's troops were upset, but the dense fog that had set in prevented Clive from developing success, and he was forced to retreat to his original positions.
This not entirely successful venture nevertheless impressed Siraj, and he again spoke of granting trade privileges to the East India Company. To heighten peacefulness, he ordered his army to withdraw from Calcutta. While both leaders competed with each other in the subtle art of weaving intrigue and seeking profit where it at first glance does not exist, the Seven Years' War, which had already flared up in Europe, reached the distant Hindustan. The French have become more active, seeking to fully benefit from the Anglo-Bengal conflict. Emissaries of French companies and government agencies were actively engaged in agitation among the local nobility, urging to drive out the "greedy Englishmen". To what extent the "generous French" were subject to this annoying vice, the emissaries were modestly silent. In an effort to limit the activity of competitors, Clive captured the city of Chandannagar, which is a French stronghold, located 32 km north of Calcutta.
Conspiracy
Robert Clive soon came to the obvious conclusion that the problem that had arisen in Bengal had to be solved radically, that is, to expel the French and then deal with the locals with a fresh mind. All attempts to convince the nabob that something must be done with the French have failed. Siraj was not at all stupid and clearly saw the advantage of his position during the conflict of the white aliens. The nabob worked diligently to maintain an acceptable relationship with both parties. The situation hung in the air. And then Clive received information that not everything is so simple surrounded by Siraj himself. The ruler of Bengal came to power thanks to the choice of the previous nabob, his grandfather, who appointed him as his successor, bypassing several other older relatives. And these relatives were not at all filled with joy from such a choice. The discontent took shape in a conspiracy centered around the nabob's uncle, Mir Jafar, who held a very useful position as treasurer of the entire army. The British and the conspirators soon came into contact: Clive began a risky game and promised Mir Jafar every help in getting rid of his nephew who did not share "European values". In anticipation of the coup, British troops were put on alert, and to speed up the process, Clive wrote a harsh letter to Siraj, threatening war. The calculation was made on the fact that the nabob would be forced to fight, during which an accelerated procedure for removal from office would be carried out.
Plessy
Outline of the Battle of Plessis
On June 12, Clive, who was quartered in Chandannagar, which had been recaptured from the French, was finally able to march north - reinforcements from Calcutta arrived. He had more than 600 European soldiers at his disposal, 170 gunners serving 10 field guns, and 2,200 sepoys and other armed natives. Already on the campaign, Clive received new details of the passions boiling at the court of the nabob. It turned out that, on the one hand, Siraj tried to come to an agreement with the "opposition", and on the other, it was not known whether the parties reached a compromise and what was the position of Uncle Mir Jafar. Only later did it become clear that he was determined to overthrow his nephew and negotiated with him, only to lull his vigilance.
Clive gathered his officers for a council of war with a proposal to consider a further plan of action. The majority spoke in favor of ending the operation and retreating to Calcutta - according to available information, the enemy had from 40 to 50 thousand people and several dozen guns. Nevertheless, despite the results of the vote, Clive gave the order to prepare for the campaign. On June 22, 1757, his army approached the village of Plessi. The British set up their positions amid a mango grove surrounded by an adobe wall and a moat. In the center was the hunting lodge where Clive had set up his headquarters. For several days Siraj had been quartered with the entire army in the fortified camp at Plessis. Data on the number of his troops vary - we can confidently say that at the disposal of the nabob there were at least 35 thousand people (20 thousand infantry and 15 thousand cavalry), armed with a wide range of various weapons: from match guns to swords and bows. The artillery park consisted of 55 guns. A small French contingent under the command of Chevalier Saint-Frès also took part in the battle: about 50 people, mostly gunners, who had four light field guns. These Frenchmen managed to escape from Chandannagar taken by the British, and they were determined to take revenge. The positions of the nabob were located near the Hooghly River and were equipped with earthworks. The opposing sides were divided by a flat area with several artificial ponds.
At dawn on 23 June, Siraj's troops began to advance towards the mango grove, where the British positions were. The Indians transported their guns on large wooden platforms, which were dragged by oxen. The British were impressed by the number of enemy troops that filled the entire valley. The column led by Mir Jafar enveloped the English right flank dangerously. Clive, who still did not know about the position of the main "oppositionist", wrote a letter to him demanding a meeting, otherwise threatening to make peace with the nabob.
However, the battle has already begun. At 8 am, the French guns of Saint-Frès opened fire on the British, and soon all the Indian artillery joined them. Having lost several dozen people, the British took refuge in a grove. Their opponents, mistakenly believing that Clive's troops were retreating, came closer and immediately began to suffer from well-aimed English rifle and artillery fire. The cannon duel lasted for several hours, but the Indian fire was unintended and caused more damage to the mango trees. Mir Jafar did not get in touch, and Clive decided to defend himself in his comfortable positions until nightfall, and then retreat.
However, the weather intervened in the course of the battle - a tropical downpour began. The Hindus preferred to keep the gunpowder open and soon it got thoroughly wet. The British, on the other hand, covered their ammunition with tarred canvas, so when the rain subsided, the fire advantage firmly migrated to Clive's troops. The commander Mir Madan, devoted to the nabob, tried to organize a massive cavalry attack on the British, but at the very beginning he was struck down by grapeshot, and this venture ended in failure. Soon the nabob was informed that another commander loyal to him, Bahadur al-Khan, Siraj's son-in-law, had been mortally wounded. At that moment, only Mir Madana's cavalry and the French were actively fighting, and almost two-thirds of the Indian army was simply marking time. To the nabob, surrounded by the conspirators, the messengers hurried with the "correct" reports, the essence of which boiled down to the fact that everything was bad and it would be time to save themselves. The kind uncle insistently advised Siraj to leave the army and retreat to the capital, the city of Murshidabad. In the end, the nabob broke down and, accompanied by 2 thousand of his guards, left the battlefield. Control over the army passed completely to the "opposition".
The fact that something was happening on the other side did not escape the sight of the British: part of the Indian troops began to retreat to the camp, the contingent of Mir Jafar did not take any active action at all. The fiercest resistance came from the French, methodically firing from their cannons. They were the last to retreat, taking up new positions already on the earthen fortifications of the Indian camp and reopening fire. Saint-Frez did not understand the reasons for the sudden and indiscriminate retreat of the Nabob's troops and demanded a massive counterattack from his allies. With the support of a small but effective French artillery, it would have had a great chance of success, but the Indian commanders involved in the conspiracy simply ignored the calls of Saint-Fraz. While this verbal skirmish was taking place, Clive, convinced that the column threatening his right flank belonged to Mir Jafar and was not doing anything, ordered an attack along the entire line. The Indian camp was subjected to intense shelling, and panic soon began there, although spontaneous resistance was still provided by the Nabob's troops. Numerous shooters fired from match guns at the advancing British, the soldiers of Saint-Frez did not leave their positions. However, by this time the general leadership of the troops had been lost, and they began to leave the camp in haste and disorder. The French held out to the last, until, under the threat of encirclement, they were forced to abandon their guns and retreat. By five o'clock in the evening, the camp was taken. The British got huge booty, many beasts of burden, including elephants, and all the artillery. A message from Mir Jafar was finally delivered to Clive with all sorts of expressions of loyalty. His contingent, which occupied the most threatening positions for the British, did not take any part in the battle.
The Battle of Plessis cost the Anglo-Indian troops 22 people killed and about 50 wounded. The losses of the Nabob's army were estimated by Clive at about 500 people. Clive's success was difficult to overestimate - in fact, this event transferred the whole of Bengal under the control of the British and inflicted a serious, even fatal blow on the French positions in this region. Soon, Clive publicly confirmed Mir Jafar's credentials as the new nabob of Bengal. Finding himself without any support, Siraj fled to his relative, who was Mir Jafar's brother. Soon, the deposed ruler was simply stabbed to death, and the corpse was put on public display. Now in power, Mir Jafar tried to maneuver again, flirting with the Dutch now. The British administration was tired of such a multi-vector nature of its protégé, and Jafar was surrounded by numerous British advisers and consultants. He died in 1765, deprived of any support from his subjects. After him, the independence of Bengal was only formal and decorative.
After Plessis, the British and French, with varying success, repeatedly crossed swords in the vastness of Hindustan, and in 1761 Pondicherry, the main stronghold of the Golden Lilies in India, was taken by storm. Since then, no one has disputed the English dominance of these lands. Under the terms of the Paris Peace Treaty, which ended the Seven Years War, France lost the lion's share of its colonies: Canada, a number of islands in the Caribbean and French India were lost. A few French enclaves continued to exist in Hindustan, but they no longer played any decisive role.
