Neither the splendor of our clothes, nor the abundance of gold, silver, or precious stones can make enemies respect or love us, but only the fear of our weapons makes them obey us.
Ingenuity will do anything as long as it is not denied the appropriate expense.
It must be remembered that an inexperienced redneck always promises too much and is sure that he knows what she really does not know.
Publius Flavius Vegetius Renatus (lat. Publius Flavius Vegetius Renatus; late IV - early V century)
After the publication of a series of materials about the weapons and armor of the Celtic warriors, according to the logic of things, Rome should go. But writing about Roman armor and weapons is, in general, ungrateful, because whoever has not written about it and, judging by the same comments from VO visitors, they are generally good at understanding this.
Roman cavalry 1st century AD Artist Ronald Embleton.
Therefore, the idea was born: firstly, to tell about the armor and weapons of Rome, again exclusively in a historiographic manner, and secondly, to show all this through the works of famous English artists, museum exhibits. That is, as clearly and concisely as possible - into one material.
First of all, let us emphasize that the soldiers of Rome at different times had different weapons. In the early "heroic era" it differed little from the Celtic, Samnite, Etruscan and Greek, since the Romans themselves at that time were "outlaw" - "people outside the law", outcasts, thieves and murderers. Rome was a bunch of criminals, "thieves' common fund", hence all Roman discipline, and "Roman law". The Romans did not have any culture of their own then and could not have it by definition. Therefore, they all borrowed everything from everyone, and even called the chain mail "Gallic shirt", as pointed out by such an English historian as R. Robinson [1].
Then there was the era of the Republic, then the Empire, then the empire split and collapsed. Armor and weaponry have been quite different in each of the historical periods of this dramatic story!
A three-disc Samnite carapace from a tomb at Ksour es Sad, Tunisia. It is now in the museum of the city of Bardo, Tunisia.
Armor of the Samnites. Della Cevitta Museum, Rome.
In the era of the Republic, various armor was used, ranging from a square plate on the chest to chain mail, as well as armor made of plates. It is noted that some of the plates of Roman armor were surprisingly very small in size: 1 cm long and 0.7 cm wide, although in general they ranged from 1 to 5 cm, which indicates the very high skill of their manufacturers [2]. The presence of the enemies of Rome - Dacians, shells made of leaf-shaped scales made of iron, is also noted by Peter Wilcox [3].
Roman dagger of an infantryman and his chain mail. Modern renovation.
R. Robinson repeatedly notes that in the Roman army, chain mail, called "lorica hamata" (although the term "lorica" itself comes from the word "skin"), was very widespread. Other British researchers cite numerous descriptions of ancient Roman chain mail made of several types of rings: solid-stamped, overlapped or butt-welded, and note that in the era of the empire, such rings were replaced by much more durable riveted ones.
Praetorians 1st century BC. Artist Richard Hook.
There were even specialists who calculated the labor costs of working time required to dress a whole legion in them. In particular, such a study was carried out by Michael Thomas, who, on the basis of experimental data, concluded that it would take 1, 3 years to make only one chain mail from welded and riveted rings with a diameter of 6 mm. Thus, for a whole legion of 6,000 people (1st century AD), it was required to spend 29,000,000 man-hours of working time. Chain mail of legionaries up to the 1st century. AD were very heavy and weighed 12-15 kg, which is why, perhaps, later they were abandoned [4].
Equestrian mail, like the Celts, had a mantle similar to a cape, and weighed sixteen kilograms. The mantle was attached to the rider's chest with two hooks in the shape of the letter S, and, apparently, was a separate part in this type of armor. At the thighs, the riders' chain mail had slits to make it easier to get on horseback.
Roman legionary in Britain. Artist Ronald Embleton.
At the same time, on the column of Emperor Trajan, horsemen are depicted in simpler chain mail with teeth on the shoulders and along the hem. It is noted that such a chain mail weighed about 9 kg. At the same time, they were worn not only by horsemen, but also by Roman archers of the era of the Trajan campaign in Dacia, who had tunics long to the ankles, sphero-conical helmets and chain mail with scalloped sleeves and a hem [5].
Relief from Trajan's Column: Roman infantrymen in scalloped chain mail.
Relief from Trajan's Column: Roman commanding officers
Various helmets were also used. First of all, this is a helmet of the Montefortine type, which also had cheek pads that were suspended from it on hinges, and later replaced it with an Italic type helmet. The later helmets of legionnaires with developed cheek pads and a back piece (the so-called "Gali" or imperial type of helmet) eventually replaced a conical helmet - spangelhelm (of four segments attached to the frame).
"A helmet with a ram." Discovered in Southern Italy. Approximate dating 525-500 BC. NS. The helmet is unique in that it is made of one (!) Single piece of bronze. It is believed that its strange shape and low weight indicate that this is a ceremonial product. This is what the Romans learned! Art Museum of St. Louis, USA.
In the course of military expansion in the Middle East, the Romans got acquainted with another type of helmet - "Persian" or "ridge", which was forged from two halves, riveted together by means of an overhead metal strip with a small ridge that played the role of a stiffening rib. A pair of headphones, which turned into cheek pads, protected the face from the side, the back of the head was covered by another metal plate, which was fixed movably. From the inside, all these details were trimmed with leather. Such helmets in the late III - early IV centuries. became widespread both in the cavalry and in the infantry, first of all, apparently, because it was easier to produce them in large parties [6].
Roman horsemen and infantry in ridge helmets AD 400 Artist Angus McBride.
As for, for example, the Syrian archers from the same column of Troyan, they wear the same helmets as the Romans themselves, whom they helped as allies. According to R. Robinson, the only difference was that their helmets were thinner than the Roman ones, and were always made from separate segments. In fact, they are almost identical to the helmets (spangenhelm) of the barbarians used throughout Europe in the 4th - 12th centuries. [7]
Syrian archer in a conical helmet and plate armor. Modern renovation.
Bronze and silver-plated cavalry helmets with masks that completely cover the face are considered by English-speaking authors mainly as belonging to equestrian competitions "hippika gymnasia", although they could also have a combat purpose.
Clibanari Cavalry Parade in Rome, 357 Artist Christa Hook.
Simon McDuval, who studied the "Table of Merit" (Notitia Dignitatum), noted that by the 5th century. AD the value of the armor of the Roman army decreased due to its barbarization [8]. The main means of protection for the warrior became a large oval shield of auxiliary units - auxiliaries [9] and a Spangelhelm helmet (of four segments on a frame), which later became typical of the early Middle Ages. The shields of the soldiers of one unit had the same painting, which was periodically renewed and served to distinguish between friends and foes.
Almost all English-speaking historians note that the reason why the gladius sword with a thrust blade spread in the Roman army was exclusively tactics, since the legionaries acted in close formation, where there was no room for a long sword swing. At the same time, the Roman horsemen were armed with a longer sword - spata, which over time completely supplanted the gladius.
They see the reason for this in the change in the nature of the conduct of war. So, if earlier legionnaires fought mainly against the same infantry, then at the end of the 2nd - beginning of the 3rd century. AD, when gladius gradually gave way to spata, they more and more often had to confront barbarians with long swords, and not only in the ranks, but also in single combat. The role of the cavalry has increased, which is why specialized weapons are replaced by more universal ones, not to mention the fact that barbaric mercenaries come to service with their weapons, or Roman armourers specially produce for them what they could handle.
Rice. And Shepsa
Armament to the soldiers at this time was usually supplied at the expense of the state, so even in the difficult period for Rome at the end of the 4th - beginning of the 5th A. D. the empire had 35 "factories" that produced all types of weapons and military equipment, from shells to catapults. However, the rapid decline in production in the empire very soon led to the fact that already around 425, most of the army began to be equipped at the expense of their own salaries.
Plumbate Roman dart tips with lead weights.
And it is hardly surprising that many soldiers sought to buy themselves cheaper weapons, and, consequently, lighter ones, and in every possible way avoided buying themselves expensive protective armor. Both light and heavily armed infantrymen now dressed almost the same, and those who had armor wore them only in decisive battles, and on campaigns carried them along on carts [10].
A lush and frankly gaudy Roman horseman's helmet made of tinned bronze from the era of the decline of the empire. Teilenhofen. Around 174 A. D.
But the chased lorics of the Roman emperors, which were in use during the time of the legendary Romulus and Remus, became fashionable again during the Renaissance. And helmets with a visor and helmets for gladiatorial battles with wide brims (typical "chapel de fer" of medieval infantrymen and horsemen) - all this was created and tested in this era, just like the long knightly spears and swords!
Roman legionaries in battle with the Dacians. Illustration by Mac Bride from Martin Windou's book Imperial Rome at Wars, published in Hong Kong.
Note that British historians studied each era of the Roman army separately [11], and not only in time, but also territorially, which was reflected in the series of books "Enemies of Rome - 1, 2, 3, 4, 5" [12] Of course, it is impossible not to mention the book by Peter Connolly, which is quite accessible to Russians [13]. There are numerous works written on the basis of the works of English reenactors [14], but the "most illustrated" and most graphic work belongs to the pen of the editor-in-chief of the publishing house "Osprey" ("Osprey") Martin Windrow and is called: Windrow, M. Imperial Rome at war … Hong Kong, Concord Publications Co, 1996. However, it concerns only the imperial era of Rome. Well, the conclusion will be this: the Romans in the field of weapons and in many other areas proved to be very skillful … imitators who borrowed all the best from the peoples around them and put it on stream.
Modern English reenactors from the Ermine "Street Guard"
As for the death of the great empire, it happened not at all due to the uprisings of slaves and attacks of barbarians - all this is not a cause, but a consequence of internal troubles. The main reason is lead poisoning and impaired fertility. The Romans combed their hair with lead combs, drank wine from lead jugs (so it seemed to them tastier!), Water also flowed to their houses through lead pipes. In the bones of the Romans of the era of the empire that have come down to us, lead is 10-15 times more than the norm. And how much of it was then in the soft tissues? So they died, leaving no heirs, and over time there was simply no one to defend Rome!
1. Robinson, R. Armor of the peoples of the East. History of defensive weapons // Translated from English. S. Fedorova. M., ZAO Tsentrpoligraf, 2006. S. 19.
2. Macdowall, S. Late Roman infantryman. 236-565 AD. L.: Osprey (Warrior series No. 9), 1994. PP. 152-153.
3. Wilcox, P. Rome's enemies I - Germans and Dacians. L.: Osprey (Men-at-arms series No. 129), 1991. P. 35.
4. Tomas, M. Roman armor // Military Modeling. 1999 / Vol. 29. No. 5. P. 35.
5. Robinson, H. R. The armor of Roman legions. Ermine Street guard. 1976. P. 25.
6. Macdowall, S. Late Roman cavalryman 236-565 AD. L.: Ospey (Warrior series # 15), 1995. PP. 4, 53. IL. E.
7. Robinson, R. Armor of the peoples of the East. History of defensive weapons // Translated from English. S. Fedorova. M., ZAO Tsentrpoligraf, 2006. S. 90.
8. See Macdowall, S. Late Roman infantryman 236-565 AD. L.: Osprey (Warrior series No. 9), 1994.
9. Sumner, G. Roman Auxiliaries reconstructed // Military illustrated. L.: 1995. No. 81. PP.21-24.
10. Macdowall, S. Late Roman infantryman 236-565 AD. L.: Osprey (Warrior series No. 9), 1994. P. 52.
11. Sekunda, N., Northwood S. Ealy Roman's armies. L.: Osprey (Men-at-arms series No. 283), 1995; Simkins, M. The Roman army from Hadrian to Constantine. L.: Osprey (Men-at-arms series No. 93), 1998; Simkins, M. The Roman army from Caesar to Trajan. L.: Osprey (Men-at-arms series No. 46), 1995; Simkins M. Warriors of Rome. L.: Blandford, 1992.
12. Wilcox, P. Rome`s enemies 2 - Gallic and British Celts. L.: Osprey (Men-at-arms series No. 158), 1994; Wilcox, P. Rome's enemies 3 - Parthians and Sassanid Persians. L.: Osprey (Men-at-arms series No. 175), 1993; Trevino R. Rome's enemies 4 - Spanish armies. L.: Osprey (Men-at-arms series No. 180), 1993; Nicolle D., Rome's enemies 5 - The desert frontier. L.: Osprey (Men-at-arms series No. 243), 1991.
13. Connolly, p. Greece and Rome. Encyclopedia of Military History / Translated from English. S. Lopukhova, A. Khromova. M.: Eksmo-Press, 2000.
14. Zienkevicz, D. Roman Legion. National museum of Wales and the Ermine Street guard. Melays and Co Ltd., 1995; Tomas, M. Roman armor // Military Modeling. 1999 / Vol. 29. No. 5. Sumner, G. Roman Auxiliaries reconstructed // Military illustrated. L.: 1995. No. 81; Robinson, H. R. The armor of Roman legions. Ermine Street guard. 1976; Trauner, H. Roman Auxiliary // Military Modeling, L.: 1999. Vol. 29. No. 4.
