In 1957, within the framework of a bilateral agreement signed by the governments of the United States and Canada, the joint American-Canadian command of the air defense of the North American continent (NORAD - North American Air Defense Command) was created. At its inception, NORAD was in charge of the USAF Air Defense Command, Canadian Air Command, Naval Forces CONAD / NORAD and Army Air Defense Command.). NORAD headquarters is located in a nuclear shelter in a fortified bunker, inside Cheyenne Mountain, Colorado, near Colorado Springs.
Main entrance to NORAD Command Center
NORAD reached the peak of its power in the first half of the 60s. Then, in the interests of this structure, hundreds of ground-based radars functioned on the territory of the United States and Canada, dozens of AWACS aircraft and radar patrol ships were on duty in the sea and in the air, more than one and a half hundred anti-aircraft missile systems were deployed on American and Canadian territory, and the American-Canadian park interceptor fighters exceeded 2000 units. All this cumbersome, expensive economy was intended to protect against about 200 Soviet strategic bombers.
As already mentioned in the first two parts, in the mid-60s, after several dozen ICBMs were put on alert in the USSR, it was they, and not the bombers, that began to pose the main threat to the continental United States. Here is how US Secretary of Defense James Schlesinger spoke about the Soviet nuclear threat and the need to maintain and deploy new air defense systems:
… if they (NORAD) cannot defend their cities from strategic missiles, then you shouldn't even try to create protection from the small Soviet bomber aircraft …
Nevertheless, the Americans did not completely abandon the protection of their air borders. The F-86D, F-89 and F-94 subsonic interceptors were replaced by the supersonic F-101 Voodoo, F-102 Delta Dagger, F-106 Delta Dart, F-4 Phantom II. The first supersonic F-102s, which later became one of the most common fighters in the US Air Force, entered combat duty in mid-1956.
Salvo launch of UR AIM-4 Falcon from F-102A fighter-interceptor
The F-102 is notable for being the first production delta-wing supersonic fighter. In addition, it became the first interceptor to be integrated into the SAGE's unified targeting and weapon system. In total, the US Air Force received more than 900 F-102 interceptors. The operation of these aircraft continued until 1979.
As for Voodoo, their service with the US Air Force was short-lived. The first F-101B interceptors began arriving in air defense squadrons in early 1959. However, they did not completely suit the military, since numerous shortcomings were revealed during the operation. The fire control system caused the most criticism, since it did not meet modern requirements.
Training launch of the "nuclear" NAR AIR-2A with a conventional warhead from the F-101F interceptor
The generals of the Air Defense Command had a lot to choose from: already in 1968, the number of squadrons armed with F-101B interceptors was reduced from 15 to 6. However, in the US National Guard, these machines were delayed until 1983. For a long time, Voodoo was the main interceptor in the RAF. The first interceptors, the single-seat CF-101B and the two-seat CF-101F, reached operational readiness in Canada in 1962. In the Royal Canadian Air Force, the aircraft were in service with five air squadrons. To compensate for the "natural loss" in flight accidents and the development of the flight resource in November 1970, 66 "new" CF-101s were received from the Davis-Montan storage base. At the same time, the Canadians returned to the United States 56 extremely worn out CF-101B and CF-101F. As already mentioned in the 1st part, the armament of the Canadian interceptors included aircraft missiles with nuclear warheads. Formally, these missiles were considered American, and Canada continued to declare its nuclear-free status.
In the Canadian Air Force "Voodoo" in the role of interceptors were operated until 1984. In general, it is worth recognizing that the Canadians chose not the most successful aircraft to arm their air defense squadrons. For the Canadian Air Force, the F-104 Starfighter was chosen as a multi-role fighter, including for performing air defense missions. Modification CF-104S (CL-90) was built under license at Canadair Ltd. This vehicle had a lot in common with the West German F-104G. In total, 200 CF-104s were built by Canadair for the Canadian Air Force.
Launch of 70-mm NAR from the Canadian CF-104 fighter
After the F-101 fighters were decommissioned in Canada, the Starfighters for some time remained in this country the only type of combat aircraft capable of performing air defense missions. In 1987, all CF-104s that were in flight condition were transferred to Turkey. Over the years of operation of the Starfighters in the Royal Canadian Air Force, 25 pilots have died in plane crashes. For the sake of fairness, it should be said that in comparison with the Voodoo, the Starfighter had a more versatile composition of weapons: to defeat air targets, its arsenal had: a 20-mm six-barreled M61A1 cannon and an AIM-9 Sidewinder UR with a thermal homing head. In the fighting in Vietnam, where the Americans tried to use the F-101 and F-102 fighters with the AIM-4 Falcon missile against the MiGs, the superiority of the Sidewinder over the Falcon was revealed. Therefore, AIM-4 missiles in Canada were used only on CF-101B / F. However, the 70-mm NAR FFAR, traditional for American and Canadian interceptors, also remained in the armament.
A further development of the F-102 Delta Dagger was the F-106 Delta Dart. The first modification of the F-106A entered combat duty in October 1959. In two years, 277 single-seat F-106A and 63 two-seat F-106B were built. This is several times less than the number of F-101 and F-102 built, however, thanks to constant improvements and modernization, the F-106 remained in service for more than 20 years. Their final write-off from the US National Guard took place in 1988.
The F-106A is escorted by the Soviet Tu-95 long-range bomber. Photo taken in 1982, off the northeastern coast of the United States, opposite Cape Cod
Such a length of service, despite the relative scarcity, was associated with several circumstances. In the Delta Dart fighter, it was possible to get rid of many of the shortcomings inherent in the Delta Dagger. At the same time, the flight speed of the F-106 increased to 2455 km / h (2, 3M), with a combat radius of about 2000 km. The aircraft had very good acceleration characteristics, it climbed to a ceiling of 17680 m in 450 seconds. The interceptor was a success among pilots, it was easy to fly and enjoyable to fly. At the height of their popularity, the F-106s were in service with 13 squadrons of the United States Air Force Command. To all this, a very perfect avionics was installed on the "Delta Dart", even by the standards of the mid-80s. Of all the fighter-interceptors of the "hundredth" series, it was on the F-106 that the capabilities of the Sage automated guidance system were maximized. A computerized guidance and fire control system installed on the F-106 carried out the output to the target area, controlled the entire process, from target acquisition to missile launch. The pilot only had to authorize the launch of missiles and carry out takeoff and landing. Another interesting feature of this interceptor was the placement of two air-to-air NARs with an AIR-2 Genie nuclear warhead in internal containers. Based on the combat experience gained in Southeast Asia, starting in 1973, the F-106 combatants began to be equipped with the M61A1 20-mm six-barreled aircraft gun during factory repairs.
Before the advent of 4th generation fighters, the most advanced interceptor in the US Air Force was the F-4 Phantom II. Initially, the customer of this aircraft was the Navy, but under pressure from Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara, who wanted to standardize the fighter fleet and reduce operating costs, the Phantom was adopted by the Air Force. The first fighters, known as the F-110A, entered service in November 1963. The aircraft was soon renamed F-4C. Comparative tests with the F-106 have demonstrated that the Phantom is capable of carrying more air-to-air missiles. Its radar could detect targets at a range 25% greater, while the operation of the Phantom is a third cheaper. And most importantly, despite the fact that the Phantom avionics were not so deeply integrated into the guidance system of the Sage interceptors, the capabilities of the radar and weapons made it possible to fire at enemy bombers at a greater distance.
Launch of AIM-7 Sparrow from F-4E
The Phantom became the world's first serial fighter to carry medium-range air-to-air missiles. In addition to the 4 AIM-9 Sidewinder melee missiles, its armament could include 4 AIM-7 Sparrow medium-range missiles with a semi-active radar seeker. Since 1963, the production of AIM-7D / E modifications has been carried out with a head-on launch range of more than 30 km. Missiles "Sparrow" in the mid-60s were equipped with a rod warhead weighing 30 kg and proximity fuses. Compared to the standard missile missile of the American AIM-4 Falcon interceptors, the AIM-7 Sparrow had much better combat characteristics. After the modification of the F-4E in the avionics switched to a more compact and lightweight electronic element base in the nose of the aircraft, space was made available for the built-in 20-mm six-barreled cannon. Prior to this, the aircraft cannon and shells were suspended in a special gondola on an external suspension under the fuselage.
Although the F-4 Phantom II was used more as a fighter-bomber in the US Air Force and became known as an air superiority fighter during the Vietnam War, it also found work in the air defense squadrons. In the 60s and 80s, Phantoms repeatedly rose to meet the Soviet long-range Tu-95 bombers approaching the east coast of the United States during training flights. High flight performance, combined with powerful weapons and advanced on-board electronic systems, ensured an enviable longevity for this aircraft. The last F-4 Phantom IIs in the United States were decommissioned in the early 90s. In total, the US Air Force received 2,874 Phantoms.
As mentioned in the first part, in the United States, billions of dollars were spent on the development of an air defense system in the period from the mid-50s to the early 60s. The entire territory of the United States was divided into air defense sectors, which were in the area of responsibility of the regional command centers.
Division of US territory into air defense sectors
But even for the American economy, the creation and maintenance of a multi-level air monitoring system, numerous interceptors and air defense systems was a serious burden. The operation of dozens of long-range radar patrol ships and aircraft AWACS ES-121 turned out to be especially expensive. It is known that the deployment of all elements of NORAD was more expensive than the Manhattan project. Wishing to reduce the costs associated with obtaining radar information away from their shores, in the United States in the late 50s and early 60s, construction of five "radar pickets" was carried out on the basis of offshore oil drilling platforms. The radar platforms, also known as the Texas Towers, were permanently installed on the high seas several hundred kilometers from the East Coast of the United States and Canada.
"Texas Tower"
The Texas Towers used powerful AN / FPS-24 and AN / FPS-26 radars, sheltered from the weather by plastic domes. Delivery of shift personnel, supplies and fuel was carried out by the US Navy supply ships. In 1961, one of the radar towers was destroyed during a severe storm, which served as a formal reason for withdrawing them from duty. The last "Texas Tower" was deactivated in 1963. In fact, the main reason for the abandonment of the offshore platforms of the radar patrol was their irrelevance, since they could not record the launches of ICBMs. Due to damage, two platforms were flooded.
The DEW line and the Sage system were an integral part of the NORAD global air defense system in North America. The operation of the automated guidance system for interceptors and the processing of radar information coming from various radars was carried out by AN / FSQ-7 computer systems on a tube element base.
The computing system built by IBM was the most bulky ever built. The computing complex of two AN / FSQ-7 operating in parallel weighed 250 tons and contained about 60,000 vacuum tubes (49,000 in computers), consuming up to 3 MW of electricity. The performance of the computer was about 75,000 operations per second. A total of 24 AN / FSQ-7 units were built. Further development of AN / FSQ-7 was the defense data processing systems AN / FSQ-8, AN / GPA-37 and AN / FYQ-47.
Element of the AN / FSQ-7 computing complex of the SAGE system
The use of vacuum tube computers of this size was a very expensive pleasure, especially since multiple redundancy and duplication were required to maintain the data processing and transmission system, taking into account the low reliability of the first computer systems.
The operation of the modernized tube computers continued until the early 80s, they were finally written off after the rejection of the centralized automated guidance system for Sage interceptors. After the Sage system was deemed obsolete, the development of the AN / FYQ-93 solid-state combat control system began in the late 70s, based on one Hughes H5118ME main computer and two Hughes HMP-1116 peripherals. Operation AN / FYQ-93 began in 1983 and lasted until 2006. Unlike the Sage equipment, the new CIUS did not provide automated guidance for interceptors, but only displayed the air situation and broadcast it to other regional NORAD command centers.
After the refusal to carry out constant combat duty by AWACS aircraft and radar patrol ships, the main burden of issuing information about air targets and the guidance of interceptors was assigned mainly to stationary ground-based radars. The AN / TPS-43 and AN / TPS-72 radars, which are at the disposal of the army air defense units stationed in the United States, did not provide constant coverage of the air situation and were deployed only during exercises or in crisis situations.
In the 70s, the American radar network relied on the AN / FPS-24, AN / FPS-26, AN / FPS-35 radars and further AN / FPS-20 development options - AN / FPS-66, AN / FPS-67, AN / FPS-93. In the mid-1970s, about 250 medium and high power radars operated in Alaska, Canada and the continental United States. Funding for Canadian radar posts was carried out from the US budget.
Construction of a stationary radar AN / FPS-117 in Canada
In the mid-80s, the three-coordinate AN / FPS-117 radar with AFAR was adopted by the American armed forces. Modifications to this station have become widespread both in the NORAD radar warning network and among US allies. The detection range of high-altitude targets in the AN / FPS-117 radar can reach 470 km. In the mid-1980s, the North Warning System (NWS) replaced the DEW line in Alaska and Canada. The basis of this system was the AN / FPS-117 and AN / FPS-124 radars.
Stationary radar AN / FPS-117
The AN / FPS-117 radar, used as part of the North system, was developed by Lockheed-Martin specialists on the basis of the AN / TPS-59 radar, which is in service with the USMC. Radars of the AN / FPS-117 family are distinguished by increased radiation power, various linear dimensions of the AFAR, as well as enhanced capabilities for detecting tactical and operational-tactical missiles.
Stationary radar antenna AN / FPS-117 under a radio-transparent dome
Unlike AN / FPS-117, the AN / FPS-124 type station with a detection range of 110 km was originally developed as a stationary one for use in the far north. When creating this station, particular attention was paid to the ability to detect low-altitude targets.
Stationary radar AN / FPS-124
Thanks to the replacement of the highly automated AN / FPS-124 radar stations built in the 60s and 70s, it was possible to increase the reliability of the air monitoring system in polar latitudes and reduce operating costs several times. The radars AN / FPS-117 and AN / FPS-124 of the "North" system are installed on solid concrete foundations, the transmitting-receiving antennas are covered with radio-transparent domes to protect them from adverse meteorological factors.
Layout on the territory of the United States and Canada and the detection zone of the AN / FPS-117 radar (in red) and the AN / FPS-124 low-flying targets detection stations (in blue)
While the AN / FPS-117 radars are often used autonomously, shorter-range AN / FPS-124 stations are deployed as part of complex radar posts. A chain of such posts still exists, although on a smaller scale than in the past, in the territories of Alaska, Canada and Greenland. Information exchange within the Sever system is carried out via cable lines and satellite and radio relay communication channels. Several years ago, Lockheed Martin received $ 20 million for the modernization of the radars included in the Sever system.
Radar post in Alaska as part of the radar AN / FPS-117 and AN / FPS-124
There are currently approximately 110 fixed radar posts operating on the continental United States. About 15% of them are old military stations such as AN / FPS-66 and AN / FPS-67. The rest are radars of the ARSR-1/2/3/4 type (Air Route Surveillance Radar), differing in hardware, computing facilities and software. They are shared by the US Air Force and the US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA).
Radar ARSR-1E
The most modern ARSR-4 stations are the civilian version of the three-dimensional AN / FPS-130 radar made by Northrop-Grumman. The detection range of ARSR-4 large high-altitude targets reaches 450 km. At a distance of up to 100 km, the station is capable of detecting targets flying at extremely low altitudes. Due to their high reliability, ARSR-4 radar posts operate in automatic mode, transmitting information via communication channels. To protect against wind and precipitation, ARSR-4 radars are placed under a radio-transparent dome with a diameter of 18 meters. From 1992 to 1995, 44 ARSR-4 dual-use radars were deployed in the United States. They work and carry out a two-way exchange in the interests of NORAD and the Joint Surveillance System (JSS). In the mid-90s, the cost of one station of the ARSR-4 type, depending on the place of construction, was $ 13-15 million.
Radar ARSR-4
As of mid-2015, the NORAD system used fixed radars AN / FPS-66 and AN / FPS-67, AN / FPS-117, AN / FPS-124, ARSR-1/2/3/4 and mobile stations AN / TPS-70/75/78. Mobile radars, as a rule, are not constantly on duty and are a kind of reserve in case of failure of stationary radars or, if necessary, to strengthen air control in some direction. Military radars serve 10,000 troops, about half of them are national guardsmen. In the future, it is planned to equip the American armed forces with new observation stations - 3DELLR and multifunctional AN / TPS-80, as well as modernize and extend the life of the existing radar.
