The success of Svyatoslav's Khazar campaign made a huge impression on Constantinople. In general, the Byzantines were not against the defeat of Khazaria from Russia, as they pursued their policy on the principle of “divide and rule”. In some periods, Byzantium supported Khazaria, helped her build powerful stone fortresses, the Khazars were needed to counterbalance Russia and other enemies of the Romans. During the campaign of Svyatoslav, when Russian troops struck one after another at the Khazars and their allies in the Volga region, the Azov region and the North Caucasus, Byzantium remained neutral and completely silent. In Constantinople, they were glad of the defeat of the Khazars.
However, the complete defeat of Khazaria (Svyatoslav's saber strike on the Khazar "miracle Yud"), in Constantinople they wanted to see Khazaria weakened and humiliated, but not completely destroyed, shocked the Byzantine elite. Most of all they feared a spurt of Russian troops into Tavria (Crimea). The troops of Svyatoslav did not cost anything to cross the Cimmerian Bosphorus (Kerch Strait), and capture the flourishing land. Now the fate of the Kherson fema depended on where the great Russian prince would move the troops. The Byzantine governor in Kherson had too few troops, unable not only to defend the peninsula, but even the capital. Kherson was then a rich trading city. Strong reinforcements from Constantinople could not have been sent soon. In addition, the Russian troops could not wait for the arrival of the Roman army, but calmly devastate the peninsula and go into their borders. However, after the capture of Tmutarakan and Kerchev, Svyatoslav was not yet going to enter into direct conflict with Byzantium.
Mission Kalokira. Balkan affairs
After returning to Kiev, Svyatoslav began to think about a campaign against Chersonesos (Korsun). The whole course of events led to a new confrontation between Russia and the Byzantine Empire. The Khazar campaign freed up trade routes along the Volga and Don for Russian merchants. It was reasonable to continue the successful offensive and occupy the gate to the Black Sea - Chersonesos. It is clear that such a possibility was not a secret for Byzantium. Roman merchants, including Chersonesos, were regular guests at Russian auctions. In Constantinople, they began to look for a diplomatic way out of this dangerous situation.
Around the end of 966 or the beginning of 967, an unusual embassy arrived in the capital city of Kiev to the Russian prince Svyatoslav. It was headed by the son of the Chersonesus stratigus Kalokir, who was sent to the Russian prince by the emperor Nikifor Foka. Before sending the envoy to Svyatoslav, the Basileus summoned him to his place in Constantinople, discussed the details of the negotiations, conferred the high title of patrician and presented a valuable gift, a huge amount of gold - 15 cantenarii (about 450 kg).
The Byzantine envoy was an extraordinary person. The Byzantine historian Leo the Deacon calls him "brave" and "ardent". Later Kalokir will meet on the way of Svyatoslav and prove that he is a man who knows how to play a big political game. The main goal of Kalokira's mission, for which, according to the Byzantine chronicler Leo the Deacon, the patrician was sent to Kiev with a huge amount of gold, was to persuade him to come out in alliance with Byzantium against Bulgaria. In 966, the conflict between Bulgaria and Byzantium reached its peak, and the emperor Nikifor Phoca led his troops against the Bulgarians.
“Sent by the royal will to the Tavro-Scythians (this is how the Russians were called from old memory, considering them to be the direct heirs of Great Scythia), the patrician Kalokir, who came to Scythia (Russia), liked the head of the Taurus, bribed him with gifts, charmed him with flattering words … and convinced him to go against the Misyans (Bulgarians) with a great army on the condition that he, having conquered them, would keep their country in his own power, and assist him in conquering the Roman state and obtaining the throne. He promised him (Svyatoslav) for that to deliver the great countless treasures from the state treasury. Deacon's version is extremely simple. They tried to convince readers that Kalokir bribed the barbarian leader, made him his instrument in his hands, an instrument in the struggle against Bulgaria, which was to become a springboard for a higher goal - the throne of the Byzantine Empire. Kalokir dreamed, relying on Russian swords, to seize Constantinople and wanted to give Bulgaria in payment to Svyatoslav.
This version, created by the official historiographer of the Byzantine Basileus Basil II the Bolgar fighter, entered historiography for a long time. However, later, researchers expressed a clear distrust of the version of Leo the Deacon, drawing attention to other Byzantine and Eastern sources. It was found out that the Deacon did not know much, or deliberately did not mention, he kept silent. Apparently, initially Kalakir acted in the interests of Nikifor Phocas. However, after the dastardly murder of Nicephorus II Phocas, the conspiracy was headed by the wife of the emperor Theophano (a former prostitute who first seduced the young heir to the throne Roman, and then his commander Nicephorus Phocas) and her lover, Nicephorus's military associate, John Tzimiskes, decided to fight for the throne. In addition, there is evidence that the Russians, helping Nikifor in the fight against Bulgaria, performed an allied duty, the alliance was concluded even before the reign of Svyatoslav. Russian troops have already helped Nikifor Foka to recapture the island of Crete from the Arabs.
Were Svyatoslav a simple tool in a big game? Most likely no. He clearly guessed the intention of the Byzantines. But, on the other hand, the proposal of Constantinople perfectly matched his own designs. Now the Rus could, without military opposition from the Byzantine Empire, establish themselves on the banks of the Danube, seizing one of the most important trade routes that went along this great European river and approached the most important cultural and economic centers of Western Europe. At the same time, he took under the protection of the street who lived in the Danube.
In addition, Svyatoslav saw that Byzantium had been trying for many years to subjugate Slavic Bulgaria. This did not meet the strategic interests of Kiev. First, the common Slavic unity has not yet been forgotten. The Russians and Bulgarians quite recently prayed to the same gods, celebrated the same holidays, the language, customs and traditions were the same, with slight territorial differences. Similar territorial differences were in the lands of the Eastern Slavs, for example, between the Krivichi and the Vyatichi. I must say that even after a thousand years, there was a feeling of kinship between Russians and Bulgarians, it was not for nothing that Bulgaria was called "the 16th Soviet republic". It was impossible to surrender the fraternal nationality to the rule of strangers. Svyatoslav himself had plans to gain a foothold on the Danube. Bulgaria could, if not become part of the Russian state, then at least be a friendly state again. Secondly, the establishment of Byzantium on the banks of the Danube and strengthening due to the captured Bulgaria, made the Romans neighbors of Russia, which did not promise the latter anything good.
Relations between Byzantium and Bulgaria were complicated. Byzantine diplomats held in their hands the threads of governing many peoples, but with the Bulgarians, such a policy failed over and over again. Tsar Simeon I the Great (864-927), who miraculously escaped from the "honorable" captivity in Constantinople, himself launched an offensive against the empire. Simeon repeatedly defeated the imperial armies and planned to seize Constantinople, creating his empire. However, the capture of Constantinople did not take place, Simeon died unexpectedly. A "miracle" happened, which was so prayed for in Constantinople. The son of Simeon, Peter I, ascended the throne. Peter supported the Church in every possible way, endowing churches and monasteries with lands and gold. This caused the spread of heresy, the supporters of which called for the rejection of worldly goods (bogomilism). The meek and humble tsar lost most of the Bulgarian territories, was unable to resist the Serbs and Magyars. Byzantium went from defeat and resumed its expansion.
Ruins of the city of Preslav.
While Svyatoslav was at war with the Khazars, spreading Russian influence over the Volga, Azov and Don regions, important events were brewing in the Balkans. In Constantinople, they closely watched how Bulgaria weakened and decided that the time had come when it was time to get their hands on it. In 965-966. a violent conflict broke out. The Bulgarian embassy, which had appeared in Constantinople for the tribute that the Byzantines had paid since the time of Simeon's victories, was driven out in disgrace. The emperor gave orders to whip the Bulgarian ambassadors on the cheeks and called the Bulgarians a poor and vile people. This tribute was clothed in the form of the maintenance of the Byzantine princess Maria, who became the wife of the Bulgarian Tsar Peter. Mary died in 963, and Byzantium was able to break this formality. In reality, this was the reason for going on the offensive.
Constantinople has made great strides in its relations with Bulgaria since the death of Tsar Simeon. A meek and indecisive king sat on the throne, more busy with church affairs than with the development of the state. Pro-Byzantine-minded boyars surrounded him, Simeon's old comrades-in-arms were pushed aside from the throne. Byzantium allowed itself more and more diktat in relations with Bulgaria, actively intervened in internal politics, supported its supporters in the Bulgarian capital. The country entered a period of feudal fragmentation. The development of large boyar land tenure contributed to the emergence of political separatism, led to the impoverishment of the masses. A significant part of the boyars saw the way out of the crisis in strengthening ties with Byzantium, supporting its foreign policy, strengthening Greek economic, cultural and church influence. A serious turnaround has also taken place in relations with Russia. Former friends, brother countries, tied by long-standing kinship, cultural and economic ties, they more than once opposed the Byzantine Empire together. Now everything has changed. The Pro-Byzantine Party in Bulgaria watched with suspicion and hatred the progress and strengthening of Russia. In the 940s, the Bulgarians with the Chersonesos twice warned Constantinople about the Russian troops' advance. This was quickly noticed in Kiev.
At the same time, there was a process of strengthening the military power of Byzantium. Already in the last years of the reign of Emperor Roman, the imperial armies, under the command of the talented generals, the brothers Nicephorus and Leo Phoca, achieved notable successes in the fight against the Arabs. In 961, after a seven-month siege, the capital of the Cretan Arabs, Handan, was captured. The allied Russian detachment also took part in this campaign. The Byzantine fleet established dominance in the Aegean Sea. Fock's lion won victories in the East. Having taken the throne, Nikifor Phoca, a stern warrior and ascetic man, continued purposefully to form a new Byzantine army, the core of which were the "knights" - cataphracts (from ancient Greek κατάφρακτος - covered with armor). For the armament of the cataphractarii, heavy armor is characteristic, first of all, which protected the warrior from head to toe. Protective armor was worn not only by riders, but also by their horses. Nicephorus Phoca devoted himself to the war and won Cyprus from the Arabs, pressed them in Asia Minor, preparing for a campaign against Antioch. The empire's successes were facilitated by the fact that the Arab Caliphate entered a zone of feudal fragmentation, Bulgaria was under the control of Constantinople, Russia was also pacified during Olga's reign.
It was decided in Constantinople that it was time to complete the success in Bulgaria, to deal the final decisive blow to the old enemy. It was impossible to give her the opportunity to escape. Bulgaria was not yet completely broken. The traditions of Tsar Simeon were alive. The nobles of Simeon in Preslav receded into the shadows, but still retained their influence among the people. The Byzantine policy, the loss of previous conquests and the dramatic material enrichment of the Bulgarian Church aroused discontent on the part of the Bulgarian people, part of the boyars.
As soon as the Bulgarian queen Maria died, Constantinople immediately went to break. Byzantium refused to pay tribute, and the Bulgarian ambassadors were deliberately humiliated. When Preslav raised the question of renewing the peace agreement of 927, Constantinople demanded that the sons of Peter, Roman and Boris, come to Byzantium as hostages, and Bulgaria itself would undertake not to let Hungarian troops through its territory to the Byzantine border. In 966, there was a final break. It should be noted that the Hungarian troops really bothered Byzantium, passing through Bulgaria without hindrance. There was an agreement between Hungary and Bulgaria that during the passage of the Hungarian troops through the Bulgarian territory to the possessions of Byzantium, the Hungarians should be loyal to the Bulgarian agreement. Therefore, the Greeks accused Preslava of treachery, in a latent form of aggression against Byzantium by the hands of the Hungarians. Bulgaria either could not or did not want to stop the Hungarian raids. In addition, this fact reflected a hidden struggle in the Bulgarian elite, between the Pro-Byzantine party and its opponents, who gladly used the Hungarians in the conflict with the Byzantine Empire.
Constantinople, waging a struggle with the Arab world, did not dare to divert the main forces for a war with the Bulgarian kingdom, which was still a rather strong enemy. Therefore, in Constantinople they decided to solve several problems at once with one blow. First, to defeat Bulgaria with the forces of Russia, retaining their troops, and then swallow up the Bulgarian territories. Moreover, with the failure of Svyatoslav's troops, Constantinople won again - two dangerous enemies for Byzantium collided with their heads - Bulgaria and Russia. Secondly, the Byzantines averted the threat from their Kherson fema, which was the granary of the empire. Thirdly, both the success and failure of Svyatoslav's army were supposed to weaken the military power of Russia, which, after the liquidation of Khazaria, became a particularly dangerous enemy. The Bulgarians were considered a strong enemy, and had to offer fierce resistance to the Rus.
Obviously, Prince Svyatoslav understood this. However, he decided to strike. Kiev could not be calm when the place of the former friendly Russia of the Bulgarian kingdom was taken by the weakening Bulgaria, which ended up in the hands of the pro-Byzantine party, hostile to the Russian state. It was also dangerous from the point of view that Bulgaria controlled the Russian trade routes along the western coast of the Black Sea, through the lower Danube cities up to the Byzantine border. The unification of hostile Russia Bulgaria with the remnants of the Khazars and Pechenegs could become a serious threat to Russia from the southwestern direction. And with the liquidation of Bulgaria and the seizure of its territory by the Romans, the imperial armies with the support of the Bulgarians would already pose a threat. Svyatoslav decided to occupy part of Bulgaria, establishing control over the Danube and neutralizing the Byzantine party around Tsar Peter. This was supposed to return Bulgaria to the channel of the Russian-Bulgarian union. In this matter, he could rely on part of the Bulgarian nobility and people. In the future, Svyatoslav, having received a reliable rear in Bulgaria, could already set conditions for Constantinople.
The Byzantine Empire started the war first. In 966 the basileus Nikifor Foka moved his troops to the border of Bulgaria, and Kalokir urgently left for Kiev. The Romans captured several border towns. With the help of the pro-Byzantine nobility, they managed to capture the strategically important city in Thrace - Philippopolis (present-day Plovdiv). However, the military successes ended there. Byzantine troops stopped in front of the Hymean (Balkan) mountains. They did not dare to make their way to the inner Bulgarian regions through difficult passes and gorges overgrown with forests, where a small detachment could stop an entire army. Many warriors laid down their heads there in the past. Nikifor Foka returned to the capital in triumph and switched to the Arabs. The fleet moved to Sicily, and the Basileus himself, at the head of the land army, went to Syria. At this time, in the east, Svyatoslav went on the offensive. In 967, the Russian army marched to the Danube.
