On July 28, 1914, the Austro-Hungarian Empire declared war on Serbia. Mass mobilization of troops began in both countries. On July 29, Austro-Hungarian troops began shelling Belgrade. By August 12, the Austro-Hungarian command concentrated 200 thousand soldiers on the Serbian front and began a massive invasion. Thus began the Serbian campaign of the First World War, which cost Serbia 1.5 million people (33% of the population).
Background
The confrontation in the Balkans lasted for decades. The main players were the Ottoman Empire, Russia, Austria-Hungary and Italy. In addition, England and France had a certain influence, Germany was strengthening its positions more and more, whose growing economic power could not but affect the growth of Berlin's influence in the region.
The Balkan wars of 1912-1913 and 1913 led to the defeat of the Ottoman Empire, which lost almost all the lands in Europe (while Porta did not reconcile and hoped to regain some of its influence in the region) and the clash of the former allies in the anti-Turkish alliance. Bulgaria was defeated by Serbia, Montenegro, Greece and Romania. In addition, Turkey also opposed Bulgaria.
The collapse of the Balkan Union (the block of Serbia, Montenegro, Greece and Bulgaria) was used by Austria-Hungary and Germany. The Bulgarian elite was unhappy with the defeat in the Second Balkan War. Bulgaria was eager for revenge. Revanchist Bulgaria eventually joined the Central Powers bloc.
In turn, in the Second Balkan War, Serbia, although significantly strengthened, was not completely satisfied. Belgrade did not achieve access to the sea and wanted to annex the north of Albania, which was contrary to the policy of Austria-Hungary and Italy. In the fall of 1913, the Albanian crisis broke out - Serbia sent troops into the territory of Albania, but was forced to withdraw them under pressure from Austria-Hungary and Germany.
In addition, Vienna feared the emergence of a strong Serbian state on its borders, which, after the defeat of the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria in the Balkan Wars, could become the strongest power in the Balkan Peninsula. In Vojvodina, which belonged to Austria-Hungary, a large number of Serbs lived. Fearing separatist sentiments in Vojvodina and other Slavic lands and the complete collapse of the empire, a significant part of the Austro-Hungarian leadership wanted to resolve the issue by force - to defeat Serbia. Especially these moods intensified after the assassination on June 28 of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife. The heir to the throne was a supporter of a peaceful solution to the problem - the creation of a triune state of Austria-Hungary-Slavia. Franz Ferdinand did not like the Slavs, but he strongly opposed a preventive war with Serbia. His assassination destroyed the main barrier to the war in Austria-Hungary.
Germany supported the Austro-Hungarian war party, since Serbia was on the path of advancing German capital and goods to the Balkans and the Middle East. This especially intensified after the Balkan Wars, when Serbia received the New Bazar Sanjak and found itself on the routes leading to Constantinople and Thessaloniki. Serbia was considered an ally of Russia, which violated Germany's plans for the future of the Balkans and the Middle East. Germany hoped that while Austria-Hungary would be at war with Serbia and attract the attention of Russia, in the most favorable conditions deal with France.
At the same time, Serbia should not be considered a victim. Serbia became radicalized, victories in two wars at once and a sharp strengthening of the state took on a strong national upsurge. The plans to create a "Greater Serbia" were very popular. Various nationalist, right-wing radical organizations became more active, which aimed at the collapse of Austria-Hungary and the separation of the Slavic lands from it, some of which were to become part of "Great Serbia". The Black Hand grouping was organized, which controlled almost all government bodies, its branch, Mlada Bosna, operated in Bosnia, planning to separate this region from the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
It is also necessary to take into account that among the organizers of the "Black Hand" there were Masons, who were guided by related structures in other European countries. And the Masons, in turn, were one structure of the so-called. The "financial international" - the "golden elite" that ruled France, England and the United States. The "Financial International" has long been preparing Europe for a big war, which was supposed to strengthen their power in the world. A provocation was needed that would launch the process of the outbreak of a world war. This provocation was organized by the Serbian "brothers-masons".
Franz-Ferdinand was killed on June 28. The killer and his comrades were associated with the nationalist Serbian organization "Black Hand", which had the support of a number of senior officers of the Serbian military intelligence. The provocation was perfect. In Vienna, they decided that the pretext was good for the military defeat of Serbia. On July 5, Germany promised to support the Austro-Hungarian Empire in the event of a conflict with Serbia. Berlin also believed that the moment was ideal for the start of the war and the defeat of France. Vienna and Berlin made a strategic miscalculation, believing that they are realizing their game. Although in reality they fell into a long-prepared trap, which was supposed to lead to the destruction of the German and Austro-Hungarian empires, as well as Russia, which was supposed to stand up for Serbia.
On July 23, the Austro-Hungarian envoy to Serbia, Baron Gisl von Gislinger, handed an ultimatum note to the Serbian government. Some of the demands of this ultimatum were related to the country's sovereignty and were deliberately unacceptable for Belgrade. Thus, the Serbian government had to stop the massive anti-Austrian propaganda, dismiss the organizers of this agitation, dissolve the nationalist organization Narodna Odbrana, arrest the officers who were the organizers of the murder of Franz Ferdinand and allow the official representatives of Austria-Hungary to enter Serbia to investigate the case of the attempted assassination Archduke. Serbia was supposed to respond to the ultimatum in 48 hours. At the same time, Vienna began preparatory measures for the mobilization of the armed forces.
In Belgrade, they realized that it smells like fried and the Serbian government rushed about. Serbia had not yet managed to recover from the two Balkan wars, the country was not ready for war. The Pasic government, like most of the bourgeoisie, feared war at the moment. The Prince Regent Alexander asked his uncle, the King of Italy, to act as an intermediary. At the same time, Belgrade asked for help from St. Petersburg. “We cannot defend ourselves,” wrote Prince Regent Alexander in his address to Emperor Nicholas II, “therefore, we implore Your Majesty to help us as soon as possible. Your Majesty has assured you of your good will so many times before, and we secretly hope that this appeal will find a response in your noble Slavic heart. In St. Petersburg, they were not very happy about this situation; in recent years, Russia has had to act as a peacekeeper in the Balkans more than once.
However, at an emergency meeting of the Russian government, it was decided to provide comprehensive diplomatic assistance to Belgrade. Petersburg advised to accept the demands of Vienna. Serbia unconditionally accepted eight demands of Austria-Hungary, and one with a reservation (the presence of Austrian investigators on Serbian soil). Belgrade offered to consider this issue in the international court in The Hague.
But Vienna was waiting for such an answer. The beginning of the war was practically a decided matter. On July 25, the Austrian envoy, Baron Gisl von Gieslinger, said that the answer was unsatisfactory and diplomatic relations between the two powers were severed. At that time, French Prime Minister Raymond Poincaré visited the Russian capital and both powers solemnly reaffirmed their obligations to each other. Petersburg and Paris believed that if firmness was shown, there would be no war, Vienna and Berlin would yield. “Weakness towards Germany always leads to problems, and the only way to avoid danger is to be firm,” Poincaré said. England, which had long wanted war in Europe, also supported the Allies.
A telegram is coming from St. Petersburg to Belgrade: start mobilization, be firm - there will be help. In turn, Vienna was confident that Russia, disappointed with the previous policy of Serbia, would not fight for it. In Austria-Hungary, it was believed that the case would end with a diplomatic protest from the Russian Empire, and the Russians would not enter the war. Chief of the Austrian General Staff Konrad von Götzendorf (Hötzendorf) said: "Russia only threatens, so we must not abandon our actions against Serbia." In addition, he greatly overestimated the strength of the Austro-Hungarian army, thinking that it would be able to withstand the Russian army on equal terms. Berlin also pushed Vienna towards the outbreak of war, rather than containing an ally. The German Kaiser and his closest advisers assured the Austrians that Russia was not ready for war (which was true) and Austria-Hungary needed to take Belgrade so that the Serbs would fulfill all the conditions of Vienna. Mobilization began in Serbia and Austria-Hungary. The Serbian government with its treasury moved from Belgrade to Nis, since the capital was located on the border and was vulnerable to the Austro-Hungarian invasion.
Anti-Serb hysteria gripped Austria-Hungary. A longtime supporter of a military solution to the Serbian problem, Prime Minister Count Istvan Tisza, said: "The monarchy must make vigorous decisions and demonstrate its ability to survive and end unbearable conditions in the southeast" (he called Serbia southeast). A wave of mass anti-Serb demonstrations swept through all the major Austrian cities, where the Serbs were called "a gang of murderers." In Vienna, the crowd nearly destroyed the Serbian embassy. Serbian pogroms began in the cities of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, and Vojvodina. In Bosnia, things got to the point that, under the auspices of the local authorities, Muslim paramilitary groups were formed, which began terrorizing the Serbs. Various Serbian associations and organizations - educational, cultural, sports (many of which were really created by Serbian intelligence and with Serbian money), were closed, their property was confiscated.
On July 28, the Austro-Hungarian Empire declared war on Serbia. On the night of July 28-29, long-range artillery of the Austro-Hungarian army began shelling Belgrade. The monitors of the Danube Flotilla also took part in the shelling. On July 31, Austria-Hungary began a general mobilization.
Alexander I Karageorgievich (1888-1934)
Austrian war plan
Initially, the Austro-Hungarian command planned to deploy three armies against Serbia with a total number of more than 400 thousand people (2/5 of all army forces). These armies formed the army group of General Potiorek: the 2nd army occupied positions along the Sava and Danube, the 5th army - along the left bank of the river. Drina before its confluence with the river. Sava and the 6th Army - in Bosnia between Sarajevo and the Serbian border. The Austro-Hungarian armies were to invade Serbia and its allied Montenegro and outflank the Serbian forces from both flanks. The commander-in-chief of the Austro-Hungarian army was the Duke of Teshinsky, Friedrich of Austria. The chief of the general staff was Franz Konrad von Hötzendorf.
However, Berlin forced Vienna to make adjustments to these plans. In Germany, it was believed that a powerful barrier should be set up against Russia. The German command demanded the participation of 40 Austro-Hungarian infantry divisions against the Russian Empire. The Austro-Hungarian military command was forced to leave against Serbia only 1/5 of all available forces (5th and 6th armies), and the 2nd army (190 thousand soldiers) to transfer from the Sava and Danube to Eastern Galicia. More than seven army corps were deployed against Serbia at the beginning of the war.
Therefore, the Austro-Hungarian governor of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the commander-in-chief of the armed forces in the Balkans and the commander of the 6th Austro-Hungarian Army, Oskar Potiorek, decided on the Danube and lower reaches of the Sava to abandon active offensive operations and conduct only demonstrative actions. For this, the 7th Army Corps, located in the Temeshwar area, was intended. He was supported by Hungarian military units (Honved) and Landsturm (militia). They planned to launch a decisive offensive from the Drina River with five corps of the 5th and 6th armies: the 4th, 8th, 13th, part of the 15th and 16th corps. Part of the forces of the 15th and 16th corps were supposed to oppose the Montenegrin army. The formations of the 9th Army Corps were in reserve between Sava and Drina.
Oscar Potiorek (1853 - 1933)
Serbia's mobilization and plans
The Serbian army, after the Balkan Wars and the expansion of the country's territory, underwent a complete reorganization. The number of infantry divisions in the army was increased from 5 to 10. The first draft classes (men 21-30 years old) formed five divisions and one cavalry division, large-caliber and mountain artillery. In addition, the surplus of these draft ages allowed the formation of six additional infantry regiments in Old Serbia and one division in New Serbia (Serbian Macedonia). The second draft classes (30-38 years old) also formed five divisions, but not full strength. The divisions had three regiments, not four, only one artillery group (12 guns) instead of three (36 guns). The command distributed the new Macedonian regiments among the Old Serb garrisons, where they were replenished to the state of war. The third draft classes (38-45 years old) formed the militia - one regiment and one squadron for each draft district.
In addition, volunteers, road guards, railway personnel, etc. were subject to mobilization. As a result, Serbia could field more than 400 thousand people. The main striking force was represented by 12 infantry and 1 cavalry divisions (about 240 thousand people). However, the problem of the Serbian army was the lack of weapons, especially artillery and ammunition, ammunition. And the two Balkan wars have significantly thinned the arsenals. They have not yet been replenished. Russia promised 400 thousand rifles, but in the summer of 1914 managed to deliver only 128 thousand. The strength of the Serbian army was combat experience, morale and the nature of the upcoming war (it was necessary to defend the Motherland).
Voivode, Chief of the General Staff of Serbia during the Balkan Wars and World War I Radomir Putnik (1847 - 1917)
The war against Austria-Hungary was popular in society, patriotic sentiments prevailed in Serbia after two victorious wars. In addition, Serbia has been a militarized society for centuries. Therefore, despite the fact that the mobilization was announced in the midst of field work, 80% of the spare were mobilized on the very first day. But, in the new regions of Serbia, the mobilization did not go so smoothly. Numerous cases of desertion to Bulgaria were recorded. The Serbian government was even forced to appeal to the Bulgarian government with a demand to ban the passage of fugitives across the Serbian-Bulgarian border, which violated Bulgaria's declared neutrality.
Prince Regent of the Serbian Kingdom Alexander I Karageorgievich was the supreme commander of the Serbian army, the voivode (corresponding to the rank of field marshal) Radomir Putnik was the chief of the general staff. Belgrade was working on two options for a war with Austria-Hungary: 1) alone; 2) in alliance with Russia. The Serbs did not have any information about the forces that Austria-Hungary would put up, or about the strategic deployment of the enemy armies. Much depended on whether Russia would fight. In general, the Serbian war plan involved defensive actions at the start of the war. Serbia did not have the strength to invade Austria-Hungary, especially before the decisive turning point in Galicia (with Russia's participation in the war).
The Serbian command took into account that the Austro-Hungarian armies could strike from two strategic directions. To the north of the Danube and Sava, Austria-Hungary had a developed network of communications and could concentrate its main forces in the Banat region in order to first of all capture the Serbian capital, and at the second stage to advance through the Morava and Kolubara valley into the interior of the country, to capture Kragujevac (the main arsenal of Serbia). However, here the Austrian offensive was complicated by the fact that they had to overcome the Serbian defenses on the first-class water lines of the Danube and Sava. In addition, Serbian troops could try to cover the Austro-Hungarian troops.
The blow from the Drina, from west to east, had its advantages. Here the Austro-Hungarian troops rested the left flank against their territory, and the right flank against the inaccessible mountains, which protected them from possible coverage. However, on the Drinsko direction, the rugged mountainous terrain, with a small number of roads, favored the Serbian defense. The Serbs were on their own land. From the side of Bulgaria, the Serbian army was covered by Timok, Morava and the ridge between them.
In accordance with two main directions, options for the deployment of Serbian troops were outlined. The Serbian command had to wait until the general situation cleared up. The deployment area was supposed to be covered by the Sava and Danube current from the northern direction, which was considered the main one, and also took into account the probability of an enemy offensive from the west and north-west.
According to these directions, the Serbian troops were brought together into 4 armies (in fact, corps or detachments). The 1st Army, under the command of Petar Boyovic, was supposed to hold a 100 km front along the Danube. Its main forces were concentrated in the area of Palanka, Racha and Topola. The army consisted of 4 infantry and 1 cavalry divisions. The 2nd Army, under the command of General Stefanovich, was a mobile group in the Belgrade area and consisted of 4 infantry divisions of the first order. The 3rd Army, under the command of General Jurisic-Sturm, also represented a maneuvering group in the Valjev area and consisted of two infantry divisions and two detachments. The 4th Army (Uzhitskaya Army), under the command of General Boyanovic, covered the Upper Morava valley from the western direction and provided communication with Montenegro. It consisted of two infantry divisions. In addition, 60 thousand. the army of Montenegro deployed in the border zone on its territory, supporting the left flank of the 4th Serbian army.
Thus, most of the Serbian army was a mobile group, covered by the natural defensive lines of the Danube, Sava and Drava rivers, which defended the reserve units of the third draft. In general, the Serbian army, with limited capabilities, had an advantageous (middle) position for the fight and was ready to act in internal operational directions. With a successful development of the situation, the mobile group was ready to undertake an offensive operation in the Srem area or in Bosnia.
The weak point was the possibility of participation in the war of Bulgaria on the side of Austria-Hungary. Then Serbia would have to fight on two fronts. Serbia did not have the forces to conduct hostilities on two fronts. The Austro-Hungarian Empire bound all the forces of the Serbian army. In the event of a war on two fronts, Serbia found itself under the threat of a military-political catastrophe.
Source of the map: Korsun N. G. Balkan front of the World War 1914-1918.
