In the previous article "The Treason of Mazepa and the pogrom of Cossack liberties by Tsar Peter" it was shown how during the reign of Peter the "noble beheading" of the Cossack liberties was carried out in response to the betrayal of the Little Russian hetman Mazepa and the uprising of the Don chieftain Bulavin. On January 28, 1725, Peter the Great died. During his reign, he committed many great deeds, but many atrocities and mistakes. One of the darkest pages of his reign is the murder of his son, heir to the throne, Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich. Even the rude morals of his contemporaries were amazed by this monstrous act, and there is no justification for this barbaric atrocity in history. Tsarevich, by definition of those who knew all three well, was in mind and character in the grandfather of Alexei Mikhailovich and had nothing to do with the psychopathic character of his father. By the definition of Peter himself: "God did not offend him with reason." Alexei was well educated, married to the sister of the Austrian empress and had a son from her, Peter Alekseevich. The tsarevich's relationship with his father and his entourage was never warm and cordial, and after the birth of a son, Peter Petrovich, to Tsar Peter from Catherine, and completely deteriorated.
Outbred entourage of Peter, especially Catherine and Menshikov, began to seek from the tsar to change the order of succession to the throne, and they succeeded. To Peter's surprise, Tsarevich Alexei easily renounced his right to the throne and even agreed to his father's demand to have a haircut as a monk. But Peter did not believe in the loyalty of his son, and especially his supporters (who were simultaneously opponents of many thoughtless Peter's reforms) and decided to keep him with him at all times. While on a visit to Denmark, he summoned his son there. Alexei felt the danger and, on the advice of like-minded people, instead of Denmark went to Vienna under the protection of his brother-in-law, the Austrian Emperor Charles VI, who hid him in a safe place. Peter, in fact by deceit, managed to return his son to the country, convict and execute him on trumped-up charges. Alexei was only dangerous because he sometimes told his confidants that after the death of his father, many of his entourage would sit on stakes. However, in the monarchic era, such an attitude of princes to their paternal nobles was more typical than exclusive, and only notorious tyrants considered this circumstance sufficient to repress the crown princes. Striving not to go down in history as a filicide, Peter acted extremely hypocritically. He gave his son to the Senate, that is, to the court of nobles, many of whom the prince threatened to put on stakes after the death of his father. With this murder, Peter undermined his family and the legitimate dynasty of the Romanov family in the male line. Because of this insane act, the Moscow throne for almost a century was replaced by random persons, first along a straight female line, and then completely random persons. Tsarevich Alexei was sacrificed to fanaticism and reforms introduced by Peter, but even more so to family intrigues and security guarantees of his new outbred entourage and the son of Peter Petrovich, born of Catherine. By his decision, Peter created a dangerous precedent for violating the rules of succession to the throne, and the reign of his successors was accompanied by numerous palace coups and the rule of all-powerful temporary workers. Less than a year after the murder of Alexei, the new heir, Pyotr Petrovich, a degenerate from birth, also died. Peter I, submitting to fate, left the question of succession to the throne open.
Fig. 1 Peter I and Tsarevich Alexei
The short reign of Catherine I and Peter II had little effect on the Cossacks. The Dnieper Cossacks were weary of the activities of the Petersburg collegium and asked the emperor to grant them a hetman. Peter II closed the college and Daniel the Apostle was elected hetman. After the untimely death of Emperor Peter II, the male line of the Romanovs was interrupted and a long period of “female” rule began. The first empress in this row was Anna Ioannovna. Her reign was characterized by the dominance of foreigners in internal affairs and the consciousness of their military strength in external affairs. Russia actively intervened in the affairs of Poland. Poland was ruled by kings elected by the gentry, and candidates were actively supported or rejected by neighboring states. A good reason for interfering in the internal affairs of Poland was its multi-tribal population, besides professing different religions. Frictions on border issues did not stop with Turkey. But Turkey got involved in a difficult war with Persia and in every possible way made concessions to Russia in an effort to preserve peace in the Black Sea region. During the reign of Anna Ioannovna, almost continuous wars were fought, in which the Cossack troops took an active part. In 1733, after the death of the Polish king August II, an internal war of the pretenders broke out in Poland, but after the intervention of Russia, his son August III became king. Having dealt with the Polish question, the government shifted its attention to Turkey. Since the Persian Shah Takhmas-Kuli inflicted a heavy defeat on the Turks, the Russian government considered the moment to start a war with Turkey, and on May 25, 1735, it began with an offensive on Azov and Crimea. With the outbreak of this war, the Zaporozhye Cossacks, who went to the Turks together with Mazepa, were finally rehabilitated and accepted again into Russian citizenship. Austria by that time made peace with France and from Silesia returned to the Black Sea coast of the Russian expeditionary corps, which consisted of 10 thousand Don Cossacks. In addition to them, on the southern front there were 7 thousand Cossacks, 6 thousand Dnieper and 4 thousand suburban Cossacks. The army easily took Perekop and occupied part of the Crimea, at the same time General Lassi took Azov. Then the Dnieper army was created, which, in alliance with Austria, launched an offensive against Moldavia and Wallachia. This army occupied Yassy and advanced on Bendery. Don Cossacks were sent to a deep raid along the Danube. However, the Turks managed to mobilize, defeated the Austrians and forced them to a separate peace. Then Russia was also forced to conclude a forced peace in 1739, by which all previous successes of the Russian troops were reduced to zero. The Don Cossacks were cut off in the deep enemy rear, but managed to break through to Transylvania, where they were interned. In this war, under the command of Minich, the Don Cossacks first appeared with lances, and since then the bows, which had served the Cossacks faithfully for thousands of years, were abandoned and became the property of history. During the reign of Anna Ioannovna, the Volga Cossacks, which had almost ceased to exist, were restored. The Don chief sergeant Makar Persian was appointed the chieftain. On October 17, 1740, Anna Ioannovna died.
The short reign of the Brunswick dynasty did not affect the Cossacks in any way. In 1741, a bloodless palace coup took place and, with the help of the guards, the daughter of Peter I, Elizaveta Petrovna, came to power. After the accession to the throne of Elizabeth Petrovna, the Dnieper Cossacks, who, after the death of the Apostle, were again left without the hetman, received this right and the favorite of the empress Razumovsky was appointed hetman. There were no other cardinal changes in the life of the Cossacks during the reign of Elizabeth. All orders concerned current internal affairs, all existing privileges and autonomy remained intact, and new ones were not added. On December 25, 1761, Elizaveta Petrovna died. The short reign of Peter III was accompanied by events that were dramatic for Russia, but did not affect the fate of the Cossacks in any way. In June 1762, the wife of Peter III, Catherine, with the help of the guards and the clergy, made a coup and removed him from power, and in July he died. After his death, his young son Pavel remained, who, according to the law, was supposed to take the throne, and Catherine was regent with him. But she, supported by a circle of confidants and guards regiments, proclaimed herself empress, having committed a dubious act from the point of view of legality. She understood this perfectly, and decided to strengthen her position with personal authority and influence on others. With her abilities, she quite succeeded. On September 22, 1762, she was solemnly crowned at the Dormition Cathedral in Moscow, according to the custom of the Moscow tsars. She caressed and generously favored supporters, attracted opponents to her side, tried to understand and satisfy the national feelings of all, and above all Russians. From the very beginning, unlike her husband, she did not see any benefit in helping Prussia in the war against Austria, in the same way, unlike Elizabeth, she did not consider it necessary to help Austria. She never took any action without benefit for Russia. She said: "I am quite war-loving, but I will never start a war without a reason, if I start, then … not out of pleasing other powers, but only when I find it necessary for Russia." With this statement, Catherine determined the main vector of her foreign policy, which was able to reconcile people of opposite views. In domestic politics, Catherine showed great caution and tried to familiarize herself as widely as possible with the state of affairs. To resolve important issues, she appointed commissions, the chairman of which she was herself. And questions that took on alarming forms were often resolved painlessly. In order to get acquainted with the situation in the country, Ekaterina undertook several trips across Russia. And her amazing ability to select not only faithful, but also amazingly capable and talented companions admires to this day. And surprisingly, the foreign queen-German woman with these qualities and deeds managed to achieve excellent results and great authority not only among the nobility, servants and retinue, but also among the broad masses. Most historians rightly consider the period of Catherine's reign to be one of the most productive in the history of Russia.
Fig.2 "Katenka"
In foreign policy, the Polish direction was central. There were 3 difficult issues in relations between Russia and Poland, each of which worried Poland very much, threatened with a conflict and was sufficient for a war, namely:
- Russia increased its influence in Courland, formally a vassal of Poland
- Russia sought freedom of Orthodoxy in Catholic Poland
- Russia exerted increasing influence on the Baltic coast, which Poland considered a zone of its political interests.
The last question was especially explosive. The Baltic coast, which was of the greatest importance for Russia, had a long and complex history, connected even with the Crusades. Since ancient times, the eastern Baltic (Ostsee) was inhabited by various tribes of the Balts and Ugrians. The appearance of the Germanic population in the Baltics dates back to the end of the 12th century. Simultaneously with the movement of the Tatars from the East, from the West, the movement of the peoples of the Germanic race began. The Swedes, Danes and Germans began to occupy the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea. They conquered the Livonian and Finnish tribes who lived on the coast of the Bothnian, Finnish and Riga gulfs. The Swedes occupied Finland, the Danes occupied Estland, the Germans colonized the mouths of the Neman and Dvina. Colonization was accompanied by missionary activities of Catholics. The popes called the peoples of the north to a crusade against the pagans of the Baltic states and the Russian schismatics of Eastern Christianity. Bishop Albert, with the blessing of the Pope, arrived with troops in Livonia and built a fortress in Riga. In 1202, the Order of the Swordsmen was founded and he became the lord of the Baltic states. The Hoffmeister of the Order became the ruler of the region, and the knights became the owners of plots of land and the local peasantry. A class of knights from the Germans and a class of peasants from the Baltic states were created. In 1225-1230, the Teutonic Order settled between the Neman and Vistula in the Baltic. Created during the Crusades in Palestine, he possessed great funds. Unable to resist in Palestine, he received an offer from the Polish prince Konrad Mazowiecki to settle in his possessions to protect his lands from the raids of the Prussian tribes. The Teutons began a war with the Prussians and gradually turned their lands (Prussia) into their possessions. In place of the Prussian regions, a German state was formed, which was in fief dependence on the German emperor. After the Livonian War, which was unsuccessful for Ivan the Terrible, part of the Baltic states was forced to surrender to the rule of the Polish king, part to the rule of the Swedish king. In the continuous wars against Poland, Sweden and Russia, the Baltic (Ostsee) knightly orders ceased to exist, and between these states there was a struggle for their former possessions. Peter I annexed the Swedish possessions in the Baltic to Russia, and among the Eastsee nobility began to gravitate towards Russia. After the death of King Sigismund III in 1763, an international struggle began around the Polish succession to the throne. In 1764, Catherine undertook a trip to explore the Ostsee region. Duke of Courland, 80 years old Biron, being formally a vassal of Poland, showed her a reception worthy of a sovereign. Relations between Poland and Russia began to get complicated. The plight of the Orthodox population in Poland also did not improve. Moreover, the Sejm responded to every note of the Russian ambassador Repnin with increased repression. In Poland, a confederation began between the Russians and the Poles, i.e. legal armed defense of their rights. France, the Pope and Turkey came to the aid of the Polish confederates. At the same time, a movement of the Haidamaks, led by Maxim Zheleznyak, began in Polish Ukraine. The king turned to Moscow for help and the haidamaks were scattered by the Russian army, and Zheleznyak was captured and exiled to Siberia. In response, the Turks demanded the withdrawal of Russian troops from Poland, after the refusal, another Russian-Turkish war began. On January 15, 1769, the Crimean Khan Girey invaded the Elizabethan province, but was repulsed by serf artillery. This was the last raid of the Crimean Tatars to the Russian land. On the Bessarabian direction, the Russian army advanced and occupied Yassy, then all of Moldova and Wallachia. In the Don direction, Azov and Taganrog were occupied. The following year, the Turks suffered crushing defeats at Bendery and Cahul. Ishmael took Potemkin's corps. Count Orlov's Mediterranean squadron burned the Turkish fleet at Chesme. In 1771, a new Crimean front was formed, which occupied Perekop, then the whole Crimea and brought it out of the war and Turkish patronage. With the mediation of Austria and Prussia, negotiations began in Focsani, but the Turks refused to recognize the independence of Crimea and Georgia and the war resumed. The Russian army crossed the Danube and occupied Silistria. Only after the death of Sultan Mustafa was a peace treaty concluded in Kuchuk-Kainarji, which was forced and extremely disadvantageous for Turkey. But in Russia it was also restless, at that time a rebellion began, which went down in history as the "Pugachev rebellion". Many circumstances paved the way for such a riot, namely:
- dissatisfaction of the Volga peoples with national oppression and arbitrariness of the tsarist authorities
- dissatisfaction of mining workers with hard, hard labor and poor living conditions
- dissatisfaction of the Cossacks with the oppression of the authorities and theft of atamans appointed from the times of Peter the Great
- historians do not deny the "Crimean-Turkish trace" in these events, this is also indicated by some facts of Pugachev's biography. But Emelyan himself did not recognize the connection with the Turks and Crimeans, even under torture.
Although the dissatisfaction was general, a rebellion began among the Yaik Cossacks. The Yaik Cossacks in their inner life enjoyed the same rights as the Don Cossacks. Lands, waters and all lands were the property of the Army. Fishing was also duty free. But this right began to be violated and taxes on fishing and sale of fish began to be introduced in the Army. The Cossacks complained about the chieftains and foremen, and a commission arrived from St. Petersburg, but it took the side of the foremen. The Cossacks revolted and killed the foremen and crippled the capital's commissars. They took punitive measures against the Cossacks, but they fled and hid in the steppes. At this time, Pugachev appeared among them. He declared himself a miracle survivor from death by Peter III, and under his name began to publish manifestos promising wide freedoms and material benefits to all dissatisfied. There were dozens of such impostors at that time, but Pugachev was the luckiest one. In fact, Pugachev was a Don Cossack of the Zimoveyskaya stanitsa, born in 1742. During his military service, he participated in the Prussian campaign, was in Poznan and Krakow, and rose to the rank of orderly for a regimental commander. Then he took part in the Polish campaign. In the Turkish campaign, he took part in the capture of Bender and was promoted to cornet. In 1771, Pugachev fell ill "… and his chest and legs rotted", due to illness he returned to the Don and was on recovery. Since 1772, on suspicion of criminal activity, he was on the run, was with the Terek Cossacks, on the Crimean Turkish territory beyond the Kuban with the Nekrasov Cossacks, in Poland, lived among the Old Believers. He was arrested several times, but escaped. After another escape from the Kazan prison in May 1773, he went to the lands of the Yaik Cossacks and disgruntled people began to gather around him. In September 1773, they launched an offensive against the border villages and outposts, easily taking over the weak border fortifications. Dissatisfied crowds joined the insurgents, a Russian revolt began, as Pushkin later said "senseless and merciless." Pugachev moved through the Cossack villages and raised the Yaik Cossacks. His henchman Khlopusha raised and aroused the factory workers, Bashkirs, Kalmyks, and inclined the Kirghiz Kaisak Khan to an alliance with Pugachev. The mutiny quickly swept the entire Volga region to Kazan, and the number of rebels reached several tens of thousands. Most of the Ural Cossacks, workers and peasants went over to the side of the rebels, and the weak rear units of the regular army were defeated. Not many people believed that Pugachev was Peter III, but many followed him, such was the thirst for rebellion. The scale of the uprising accelerated the conclusion of peace with the Turks, and regular troops headed by General Bibikov were sent from the front to suppress. The rebels began to suffer defeat from the regular army. But General Bibikov was soon poisoned in Bugulma by a captive Polish Confederate. Lieutenant-General A. V. was sent to suppress the uprising. Suvorov, who captured Pugachev, and then accompanied him in a cage to Petersburg. At the beginning of 1775, Pugachev was executed on Bolotnaya Square.
"Execution of Pugachev". Engraving from the painting by A. I. Charlemagne. Mid 19th century
For Don, the Pugachev uprising also had a positive meaning. The Don was ruled by a Council of Elders of 15-20 people and a chieftain. The circle met only annually on January 1 and held elections for all elders, except for the chieftain. The appointment of chieftains (most often for life), introduced by Tsar Peter, strengthened the central power in the Cossack regions, but at the same time led to the abuse of this power. Under Anna Ioannovna, the glorious Cossack Danila Efremov was appointed the Don chieftain, after a while he was appointed a military chieftain for life. But the power spoiled him, and under him the uncontrolled domination of power and money began. In 1755, for many merits of the ataman, he was awarded a major general, and in 1759, for merits in the Seven Years' War, he was also a privy councilor with the presence of the empress, and his son Stepan Efremov was appointed as the chief ataman on the Don. Thus, by the highest order of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, the power on the Don was transformed into hereditary and uncontrolled. From that time on, the ataman family crossed all moral boundaries in money-grubbing, and in revenge an avalanche of complaints fell upon them. Since 1764, on complaints from the Cossacks, Catherine demanded from Ataman Efremov a report on income, land and other possessions, his crafts and foremen. The report did not satisfy her and, on her instructions, a commission on the economic situation on the Don worked. But the commission did not work shakily, not shakily. In 1766, land surveying was carried out and the illegally occupied yurts were taken away. In 1772, the commission finally gave an opinion on the abuses of the ataman Stepan Efremov, he was arrested and sent to St. Petersburg. This matter, on the eve of the Pugachev revolt, took a political turn, especially since the ataman Stepan Efremov had personal services to the empress. In 1762, being at the head of the light village (delegation) in St. Petersburg, he took part in the coup that elevated Catherine to the throne and was awarded for this with a personalized weapon. The arrest and investigation in the case of Ataman Efremov defused the situation on the Don and the Don Cossacks were practically not involved in the Pugachev revolt. Moreover, the Don regiments took an active part in suppressing the rebellion, capturing Pugachev and pacifying the rebellious regions over the next few years. If the empress had not condemned the thieving ataman, Pugachev, no doubt, would have found support in the Don and the scope of the Pugachev rebellion would have been completely different.
According to the Kuchuk-Kainardzhiyskiy world, Russia acquired the Azov coast and a decisive influence in the Crimea. The left coast of the Dnieper to the Crimea was called Little Russia, it was divided into 3 provinces, the borders of which did not coincide with the former borders of the regiments. The fate of the Dnieper Cossacks was made dependent on the degree of their adaptation to the conditions of peaceful labor. The Zaporozhye Cossacks turned out to be the least suitable for such a way of life, because their organization was adapted exclusively for military life. With the end of the raids and the need to repel them, they had to cease to exist. But there was another good reason. After the uprising of Pugachev, in which some Zaporozhye Cossacks participated, there was a fear that the uprising would spread to Zaporozhye and it was decided to liquidate the Sich. On May 5, 1775, the troops of Lieutenant General Tekeli approached Zaporozhye at night and removed their posts. The suddenness demoralized the Cossacks. Tekeli placed artillery, read out an ultimatum and gave 2 hours to think it over. The elders and the clergy persuaded the Cossacks to surrender the Sich. In the same year, by the decree of the Empress, the Zaporozhye Sich was destroyed administratively, as the decree put it, "as a godless and unnatural community, not suitable for the prolongation of the human race." After the liquidation of the Sich, the former elders were given nobility and a place of service in various parts of the empire. But Catherine did not forgive the previous insults to the three foremen. Koshevoy ataman Peter Kalnyshevsky, military judge Pavel Golovaty and clerk Ivan Globa were exiled to different monasteries for treason and going over to the side of Turkey. The lower ranks were allowed to join the hussar and dragoon regiments of the regular army. The dissatisfied part of the Cossacks first went to the Crimean Khanate, and then to the territory of Turkey, where they settled in the Danube Delta. The Sultan allowed them to found the Transdanubian Sich (1775−1828) on the terms of providing a 5,000-strong army to their army.
The disbandment of such a large military organization as the Zaporozhye Sich brought a number of problems. Despite the departure of a part of the Cossacks abroad, about 12 thousand Zaporozhians remained in the citizenship of the Russian Empire, many could not stand the strict discipline of regular army units, but they could and wanted to serve the empire as before. Grigory Potemkin personally sympathized with the Cossacks, who, being the "chief commander" of the annexed Chernomoria, could not help but take advantage of their military force. Therefore, it was decided to restore the Cossacks, and in 1787 Alexander Suvorov, who, on the orders of Empress Catherine II, organized army units in southern Russia, began to form a new army from the Cossacks of the former Sich and their descendants. The great warrior took all assignments extremely responsibly and this also. He skillfully and thoroughly filtered the contingent and created the "Army of the Loyal Zaporozhians". This Army, renamed in 1790 into the Black Sea Cossack Army, very successfully and worthily participated in the Russian-Turkish war of 1787-1792. But after the death of Prince Potemkin, having lost his patronage, the Cossacks felt extremely insecure on the allocated lands. At the end of the war, they asked for the Kuban, closer to the war and the border, away from the tsar's eye. As a token of gratitude for their faithful service in the war, from Catherine II they were allocated the territory of the right-bank Kuban, which they immediately settled in 1792-93. In the Azov region, the ancient cradle of their Cossack family, they returned, after seven hundred years of staying on the Dnieper, with a language that has by now become one of the dialects of the Cossack speech. The Cossacks who remained in the Dnieper basin soon melted into the masses of the multi-tribal Ukrainian population. The Black Sea Army (which later became part of the Kuban) took an active part in the Caucasian War and other wars of the empire, but this is a completely different and very glorious story.
A. A. Gordeev History of the Cossacks
Istorija.o.kazakakh.zaporozhskikh.kak.onye.izdrevle.zachalisja.1851.
Letopisnoe.povestvovanie.o. Malojj. Rossii.i.ejo.narode.i.kazakakh.voobshhe. 1847. A. Rigelman
