220 years ago, on November 17, 1796, the Russian Empress Catherine II Alekseevna passed away. The foreign policy of Russia in the era of Catherine was in line with national interests. Russia returned the West Russian lands that had been under Poland for a long time (including modern White Russia and part of Little Russia - Ukraine). Also, the ancient lands in the Black Sea region were returned to the Russian state (the annexation of Novorossia, Crimea, partly the Caucasus). The Black Sea again became, as in ancient times, Russian. The Black Sea Fleet was created, which inflicted a number of heavy defeats on the Turkish fleet. The Russian army successfully crushed all opponents. Therefore, this era is called the "golden age" of Catherine the Great.
However, the Catherine's era was marked by the maximum enslavement of the peasants and the comprehensive expansion of the privileges of the nobility. That finally split the Russian people into two parts: privileged "Europeans" - nobles, whose cultural and economic interests were associated with Western Europe and the rest of the people, most of whom were enslaved. As a result, this became the main prerequisite for the geopolitical catastrophe of 1917, when the Romanov empire perished.
Catherine II Alekseevna, nee Sophia Frederica Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst, was born on April 21 (May 2) 1729 in the small town of Stettin in East Prussia in an impoverished princely family. From childhood, she was distinguished by curiosity, ability to learn, perseverance. In 1743, the Russian Empress Elizaveta Petrovna, choosing a bride for her heir, Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich (the future Russian Emperor Peter III), made a choice in favor of Frederica. In 1744, she came to Russia to marry Peter Fedorovich, who was her second cousin (the mother of the future Russian empress, Johann Elizabeth from the Gottorp sovereign house, was a cousin of Peter III). On June 28 (July 9), 1744, Sophia Frederica Augusta converted from Lutheranism to Orthodoxy and received the name of Ekaterina Alekseevna, and the next day she was betrothed to the future emperor. The mother of the future empress turned out to be a "Prussian spy", and she was expelled, but this did not affect the position of Sophia herself.
On August 21 (September 1), 1745, at the age of sixteen, Catherine was married to Peter Fedorovich. The relationship between the royal couple did not work out. Peter was cold to his wife, called his wife "spare madam" and openly made mistresses. This was one of the reasons for the appearance of Catherine's favorite lovers. Catherine devoted a lot of time to self-education, studied Russia, its history, language, traditions. The young queen also did not forget about dancing, balls, hunting and horseback riding. On September 20 (October 1), 1754, Catherine gave birth to her son Paul. The baby was immediately taken away from his mother at the behest of the reigning Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, and Catherine was deprived of the opportunity to educate him, allowing him to see Paul only occasionally. It is believed that the true father of Paul was Catherine's lover S. V. Saltykov. In general, in the future, normal relations between Catherine and Paul did not work out. Paul believed that his mother was guilty of the death of his official father, Peter. In addition, he was irritated by the too free atmosphere of the Catherine's palace, he himself lived almost like an ascetic, taking into account his position.
Catherine was not satisfied with her position, and she began to create her own "circle". So, a close friend and confidant of Catherine was the British ambassador Williams. He repeatedly provided her with significant amounts in the form of loans or subsidies: in 1750 alone, 50 thousand rubles were transferred to her, and in November 1756, 44 thousand rubles were transferred to her. In return, he received various confidential information from her. In particular, about the Russian army in Prussia. This information was transmitted to London, as well as to Berlin, to the Prussian king Frederick II (he was an ally of the British). After Williams left, she received money from his successor, Keith. In one of her letters to Williams, Catherine promised as a token of gratitude “to lead Russia to a friendly alliance with England, to give her everywhere the assistance and preference necessary for the good of all of Europe, and especially Russia, over their common enemy, France, whose greatness is a shame for Russia. I will learn to practice these feelings, base my glory on them and prove to the king, your sovereign, the strength of these feelings of mine. " True, Empress Catherine was no longer an "English agent". In fact, this smart woman took advantage of the British.
The British were aware of Catherine's plans to overthrow the future emperor (her husband) by means of a conspiracy, about which she wrote to Williams more than once. Starting in 1756, and especially during the period of Elizabeth Petrovna's illness, Catherine was hatching a plan to remove the future emperor from the throne. Thus, the British actually financed one of the palace coups. British money went to support Catherine, who created her own strike force, which included Guard officers.
Among the conspirators were the hetman of the Zaporozhye Troops K. Razumovsky, who was the commander of the Izmailovsky regiment, the chancellor A. P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin, the protégé of the British ambassador Stanislav Ponyatovsky (he was Catherine's favorite). In early 1758, Empress Elizaveta Petrovna suspected the commander-in-chief of the Russian army Stepan Apraksin, with whom Catherine was on friendly terms, of treason. Apraksin, fearing a radical change in St. Petersburg's policy towards Prussia in the event of the death of Elizabeth (Peter was a "fan" of Frederick the "Invincible"), acted slowly and hesitantly, depriving the Russian army of the fruits of victory over the Prussians. Chancellor Bestuzhev was also under suspicion. Both were arrested and questioned, but Bestuzhev managed to destroy all his correspondence with Catherine before being arrested, which saved her from persecution. Bestuzhev himself was sent into exile, and Apraksin died during the inquiry. At the same time, Ambassador Williams was recalled to England. Thus, the former favorites of Catherine were removed, but a circle of new ones began to form: Grigory Orlov and Ekaterina Dashkova.
The death of Elizabeth Petrovna in December 1761 and the accession to the throne of Peter Fedorovich further alienated the spouses. Peter III began to live openly with his mistress Elizaveta Vorontsova. Captain G. Orlov became Catherine's lover. Catherine became pregnant from Orlov, and this could no longer be explained by accidental conception from her husband, since communication between the spouses had completely ceased by that time. Catherine hid her pregnancy, and when it came time to give birth, her devoted valet Vasily Shkurin set fire to his house. Peter and the court left the palace to watch the spectacle, at which time Catherine gave birth safely. This is how Aleksey Bobrinsky was born, to whom his brother Pavel I later assigned the title of count.
Having ascended the throne, Peter III turned the capital's officers against himself. He decided to fight with Denmark for Schleswig-Holstein and made peace with Prussia, giving up the already captured Koenigsberg and Berlin (almost all of Prussia could become part of the Russian Empire!). As a result, the mood of the guards, skillfully fueled by Catherine's agents, were on the side of the queen. Apparently, foreign participation was also involved here. The British continued to sponsor Catherine. On June 28 (July 9), 1762, Catherine, with the support of the Orlov brothers, raised a mutiny. Peter III abdicated the throne the next day, was taken into custody and died under dark circumstances (he was killed). Thus, Catherine became the ruler of the Russian Empire.
The time of her reign is called the "golden age" of Russia. Culturally, Russia finally became one of the great European powers, which was greatly facilitated by the empress herself, who was fond of literary activities, collecting masterpieces of painting and corresponded with French enlighteners. In general, Catherine's policy and her reforms fit into the channel of the enlightened absolutism of the 18th century.
Catherine II carried out a number of reforms: she reorganized the Senate, announced the secularization of church lands, and abolished the hetmanate in Ukraine. She established and headed the Legislative Commission of 1767-1769 for the systematization of laws. The Empress issued the Establishment for Governance of the Province in 1775, the Charter to the Nobility and the Charter to the Cities in 1785.
In foreign policy, Catherine's actions were almost entirely in the interests of the Russian people. At first, in the south, the Russian Empire returned the lands that belonged to the Old Russian power of the first Rurikovichs and annexed new territories, which met the military-strategic and economic interests of the country, restoring historical justice. After the first war with Turkey, Russia acquired in 1774 important points at the mouths of the Dnieper, Don and in the Kerch Strait (Kinburn, Azov, Kerch, Yenikale). The Crimean Khanate formally gained independence under the protectorate of Russia. In 1783, the Crimea, Taman and the Kuban region joined. The second war with Turkey ended with the acquisition of the coastal strip between the Southern Bug and the Dniester (1791), including the strategic fortress of Ochakov. In the course of these wars, Russia creates a combat-ready Black Sea Fleet, which smashes the Turkish naval forces. New Russia, one of the most developed parts of the empire, is actively being created.
Thus, the strategic tasks that had been facing the Russian state for centuries were solved. Russia again reached the Black Sea, annexed the Northern Black Sea region, strengthened itself in the Caucasus, solved the problem of the Crimean Khanate, built a military fleet, etc
It is also worth noting that Catherine's government was on the verge of capturing Constantinople-Constantinople and the Bosphorus and Dardanelles. The Black Sea Fleet under the command of F. F. And such a step was taken by the Black Sea - by the internal Russian, reliably defended the southern borders, gave Russia a powerful foothold in the Mediterranean and the Middle East.
Secondly, in the western strategic direction, the government of Catherine also solved the centuries-old task that faced the Russian people. Catherine united most of the Russian civilization and the Russian super-ethnos, returning the lands of Western Russia. This happened during the partitions of the Commonwealth.
Initially, Catherine II was not going to dismember the Rzeczpospolita. Weakened by internal problems, Poland has been in the sphere of influence of St. Petersburg since the time of Peter the Great. Russia needed a buffer between our lands and Prussia and Austria. However, the disintegration of the Polish "elite" reached the stage when the collapse of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth became irreversible. The arrogant and decayed Polish gentry itself killed its statehood. In 1772, the first partition of the Commonwealth took place: Russia received the eastern part of White Russia up to Minsk (the provinces of Vitebsk and Mogilev) and part of the Baltic states (Latvia). In 1793, the Second Partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth took place: Russia received Central Belarus with Minsk and a part of Little Russia-Russia. In 1795, the Third Partition of the Commonwealth took place: Russia received Lithuania, Courland, western Volhynia and Western Belarus.
Thus, historical justice was restored: most of the lands of Russia and the Russian superethnos were united. Having significantly moved the borders in the west, Russia has strengthened its military-strategic positions in this direction, increased its demographic potential and economic capabilities. Historical revenge was also committed - Poland, which for centuries had been the main enemy of the Russian state, was destroyed by a "ram" in the hands of the masters of the West. At the same time, the ethnic Polish lands ended up in the hands of Prussia and Austria, becoming their problem.
During the same period, Russia was consolidated in the Caucasus. In 1783, Russia and Georgia signed the Georgievsk Treaty establishing a Russian protectorate over the kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti in exchange for Russia's military protection. In 1795, Persian troops invaded Georgia and devastated Tbilisi. Russia, fulfilling the terms of the treaty, began hostilities against Persia, and in April 1796 Russian troops stormed Derbent and suppressed the resistance of the Persians in the territory of modern Azerbaijan, including large cities (Baku, Shemakha, Ganja). The Russian corps under the command of Lieutenant-General V. Zubov reached the confluence of the Kura and Araks rivers, preparing for further advance deep into Persia. In fact, Persia was already at the feet of Russia. The Russian Empire received the opportunity to gain a foothold in these lands and obtain a strategic foothold for a campaign against Constantinople from the west through Asia Minor. However, the fruits of these victories were stolen by the death of Ekaterina Alekseevna. Paul I decided to oppose revolutionary France, and in December 1796 Russian troops were withdrawn from Transcaucasia. However, the consolidation of Russia in the region has already become inevitable. Persia and Turkey, step by step, ceded the Caucasus to the Russians.
In the northwest, Russia withstood the attack of Sweden, which tried to take revenge and return part of the previously lost territory, taking advantage of the fact that the main forces of the empire were connected by the war with the Ottomans.
In 1764, relations between Russia and Prussia normalized and an alliance agreement was concluded between the countries. This treaty served as the basis for the formation of the Northern System - the alliance of Russia, Prussia, England, Sweden, Denmark and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth against France and Austria. Russian-Prussian-British cooperation continued further. In October 1782, the Treaty of Friendship and Trade with Denmark was signed.
In the third quarter of the 18th century. there was a struggle of the North American colonies for independence from England. In 1780, the Russian government adopted the "Declaration on Armed Neutrality", supported by most European countries (the ships of neutral countries had the right of armed defense when the fleet of a belligerent country attacked them). Thus, the government of Catherine, in fact, supported the United States against the British.
After the French Revolution, Catherine was one of the initiators of the anti-French coalition and the establishment of the principle of legitimism. She said: “The weakening of monarchical power in France endangers all other monarchies. For my part, I am ready to resist with all my might. It's time to act and take up arms. In reality, however, she was in no hurry to send the Russian army against revolutionary France. Russia benefited from the quarrel of the leading Western European powers (France, Austria, Prussia and England), at this time Russia could solve national problems. In particular, Catherine was occupied by the so-called. Greek or Dacian project - on the division of the Ottoman Empire, the revival of the Byzantine Empire and the proclamation of her as emperor by the grandson of Catherine, Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich. At the same time, Russia received Constantinople and the straits.
If in foreign policy the government of Catherine solved the most important tasks that faced the Russian state for many centuries, then in domestic policy there was no "golden" shine. In fact, the era of Catherine II was marked by the maximum enslavement of the peasants and the comprehensive expansion of the privileges of the nobility.
The nobility was given the opportunity to refuse the sovereign service, for which it had previously received estates and peasants. Thus, the division of the Russian people into the class of "European" masters and the common people was consolidated. This division began during the reign of Peter I, but he carried out a merciless mobilization of the nobles. They served as soldiers and sailors under him, fought in the forefront, stormed fortresses, mastered the naval business, went on long campaigns and expeditions.
Now the situation has changed radically. For the first time in a very long historical period, Russia had no enemies on its borders who could really threaten its existence. The last fragment of the Horde, the Crimean Khanate, was liquidated. Sweden was defeated, the Baltic states were annexed. The Swedes are no longer capable of seriously threatening St. Petersburg. Moreover, Russia itself can recapture Finland, which ultimately happened. Poland is in decline and turmoil, which ended in partitions. Relatively small Prussian kingdom, dreams of some conquests in Germany, and not a campaign to the East. The Prussians cannot even dream of a raid on Russia, of an attack on Moscow or St. Petersburg. During the Seven Years War, East Prussia and Königsberg were part of Russia for four years and did not become part of the empire only because of the contradictory policies of St. Petersburg. Ideally, Berlin needs an alliance with the Russians.
Austria also needs Russian support against the Ottoman Empire, Prussia and France. France is far away, she cannot attack us. England can only threaten at sea. At the same time, in the isolated Baltic and Black Seas, we are able to create a local advantage by relying on coastal infrastructure. The Ottoman Empire entered a period of prolonged degradation and itself trembled under the blows of Russian bayonets. There was a threat of the partition of Turkey, in favor of Russia. In the East, Russia had no opponents at all. We were actively exploring Russian America, had the opportunity to take leading positions in Japan and China.
Russia could, for the first time in a very long time, weaken the mobilization regime, in which the military class fought, and the peasant peasants worked, providing all the necessary soldiers. Thus, the nobleman lost the justification of his rule, increasingly turning into a parasite on the neck of the people. Warriors like Ushakov, Suvorov, Nakhimov became the exception to the rule rather than a common occurrence. The rest of the nobles, even those who served in the army and navy, were landowners in their psychology, and the soldiers and sailors for them were serfs.
The service of the nobles became voluntary, and serfdom not only remained, but intensified. Landowners-nobles from the point of view of a simple peasant turned into parasites. Although, it would be logical that after the Charter of Charity the nobility should have followed the Charter of Charity to the peasantry. The Russian people responded to this universal injustice with the Peasant War of E. Pugacheva. They were able to suppress the Troubles, but the reason remained. As a result, this became the main prerequisite for the geopolitical catastrophe of 1917, when the Romanov empire perished.
