The current war in Syria and Iraq ("Middle East Front") makes us recall the relatively recent, in historical terms, confrontation between the USSR and the United States and Israel, where Syria was also a battlefield. Damascus was then an ally of Moscow in the struggle against the establishment of American order in the Middle East. During the Lebanese War of 1982, Israel and Syria fought a high-tech war in Lebanon. The battle was land, air and partly sea. The USSR then confidently won a victory in one of the battles of the so-called. Cold War (more precisely, the Third World War).
The confrontation began with the Lebanese civil war. The Lebanese Civil War was triggered by three main factors. First, it is the strong religious and ethnic heterogeneity of Lebanese society, which has caused confrontation between the Christian and Muslim parts of the country. Christian civilization in the Middle East experienced a decline, while Muslim and Arab civilizations, on the contrary, experienced a surge of passionarity. However, in Lebanon, Christians historically had some advantage, so Muslims, as their number and military-political power grew, decided to turn the tide in their favor.
Secondly, it is the Palestinian factor. The Arab Palestinians lost the fight against the Jews who prevented the creation of an Arab Palestinian state and seized lands that had long been inhabited by Arabs. The Jews believed that the Palestinian Arabs already had their own state - Jordan. Palestinians fled en masse to Jordan, then to Lebanon. Palestinian radical paramilitary organizations, pursuing their goals of fighting Israel, for which they needed a base and resources, destabilized Jordan and Lebanon. However, Jordan had a strong army, created with the help of Western states, which was able to maintain order. There was no strong army in Lebanon. The Palestinians strengthened the Muslim community in Lebanon and destroyed order in the state.
Thirdly, it is the intervention of external forces, which had their own interest in Lebanon and in the region as a whole. These are the actions of Israel, the United States, Syria (which was supported by the Soviet Union), and other Arab countries. Thus, the conflict between Arab countries and Israel over water and resources led to a series of wars that destabilized the entire region, in particular, Lebanon.
Lebanon sought to avoid interfering in the 1967 and 1973 Arab-Israeli wars. However, since 1967, Palestinian guerrillas have repeatedly attacked Israel from refugee camps in Lebanon. On his part, retaliatory armed actions followed, and the Lebanese government tried to limit the military raids of the Palestinians from its territory. The civil war in Jordan finally destabilized the situation, during which King Hussein expelled the armed forces of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) from Jordan. The influx of Palestinian Arabs into the country has placed Lebanon at the center of the confrontation between Israel, Syria and the Palestinians. He also split Lebanese society over the presence of the PLO in Lebanon and the participation of Palestinians in the political life of the country, and destroyed the confessional balance in the country.
Lebanon
Lebanon is a small state in the Middle East, located in a mountainous area on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea. In the east and north, it borders on Syria, in the south - on Israel. State formations in Lebanon originated in ancient times, but they have nothing to do with the modern Arab state. Lebanon is known for the fact that the famous trading state of Phenicia arose on its territory. Phenicia flourished in 1200-800. BC NS. In the VI century BC. NS. Phenicia came under the rule of the Persians led by Cyrus the Great, becoming part of the Persian Empire. In 332 BC. NS. Alexander the Great made a campaign against Phenicia, destroying its largest city - Tire. With the collapse of the Macedonian Empire, Lebanon became part of the Kingdom of the Seleucids, and at the end of the 1st century BC. NS. - The Roman Empire. During the Arab conquests and the establishment of the Caliphate, Lebanon became part of the Islamic and Arab world. In the 12th century, during the Crusades, Lebanon became part of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem. In 1261, the Crusaders were expelled from Lebanon by the Egyptians, and Lebanon was part of Egypt until 1516. In 1517, the Turkish Sultan Selim I annexed this territory to the Ottoman Empire.
The territory of Lebanon as part of Greater Syria was part of Turkey for over 400 years. After the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I and the collapse of the empire, the territory of Greater Syria was occupied by British troops in 1918. By the Sykes-Picot agreement of 1916 between the Entente countries, the territory of Syria was transferred to France. The French received a management mandate from the League of Nations. In 1926, the territory of Lebanon was separated from Syria, and Lebanon became a separate territorial unit, controlled, however, by the French administration. In 1940, France was occupied by the Third Reich. A national government was formed in Lebanon. In 1943, Lebanon officially gained independence.
Thus, due to its convenient geographical location (which was appreciated by the ancient Phoenician traders, as well as their predecessors and heirs), Lebanon has become a place of intersection of many ancient and modern cultures, religions and civilizations. The country stood out among other Arab states in religious and national diversity, while from the early Middle Ages the Christian community predominated, which received some privileges during the rule of the French. Both Christianity and Islam in Lebanon are represented in the form of many different denominations. The largest communities are: Sunni, Shiite and Maronite (Maronite Catholic Church). Therefore, the unwritten "National Pact" in 1944 established the rule that the president of the country should be a Christian Maronite, the prime minister should be a Sunni Muslim, and the speaker of parliament should be a Shia Muslim. The constitution adopted on the basis of the National Pact consolidated the confessional fragmentation that existed in Lebanon. The seats in parliament were divided in a 6/5 ratio, where 6 are Christians and 5 are Muslims.
However, gradually the balance of power began to shift in favor of Muslims, which happened with the growth of their numbers. In 1948, Lebanon took part in the first Arab-Israeli war. Tens of thousands of Arab refugees moved to Lebanon, strengthening the Muslim community. As a result, in the 1950s, contradictions between Christians and Muslims began to intensify. During the Suez Crisis, pro-Western President Camille Chamoun (by faith of Maronite) did not sever diplomatic relations with the Western powers that attacked Egypt, which led to a diplomatic conflict with Cairo. In response to the president's actions, the Muslim community formed a National Front, demanding a policy of "positive neutrality" and friendship with Arab countries. Massive political demonstrations erupted in May 1958 into a Muslim uprising led by former prime ministers Rashid Karame and Abdallah Yafi and Parliamentary Speaker Hamade. It quickly escalated into a civil war. It was only stopped with the help of American intervention (Operation Blue Bat). American troops were able to quickly take control of the situation. President Chamoun was persuaded to resign and was replaced by the moderate Fuad Shehab. One of the rebel leaders, Rashid Karame, became prime minister. The conflict between religious communities was temporarily stabilized.
It should be noted that at this time Lebanon was a prosperous state, the financial and banking capital of the Arab world. Lebanon remained on the sidelines of the Arab-Israeli conflicts, observed neutrality, trying to maintain good relations with both its Arab neighbors and Western countries. For which he received the unofficial name "Middle Eastern Switzerland". Lebanon was also popular with tourists. The mild Mediterranean climate in a narrow seaside valley, beautiful cedar groves, the cleanest sea and monuments of ancient cultures, seemed to forever consolidate the reputation of this country as a tourist paradise. Beirut was considered the "pearl" of the Middle East. However, it was not possible to maintain this status due to the religious split in the country, the strengthening of Arab nationalism and the absence of a strong army that could maintain the existing situation in the face of an influx of Palestinian refugees.
American troops in Beirut in 1958
Confrontation between Arab countries and Israel. "Black September"
The 1967 six-day war ended with Israel's victory over the Arab coalition. The Arab countries had a multiple numerical superiority over the Israeli armed forces. The technical level of armament of the Arab countries and Israel was approximately equal. However, the Arabs overestimated their strength. Israel struck first and, by concentrating forces in one direction, successively defeated the opponents. The war cost the Arabs the loss of control over East Jerusalem, the loss of the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, Sinai and the Golan Heights on the Israeli-Syrian border. This provided the Israeli armed forces with a strategic superiority over their neighbors, even in the face of their numerical superiority.
From 1967 to 1970, there was a war of attrition between Egypt and Israel. The ideologist of this war was Egyptian President Nasser. He believed that continuous artillery shelling and air strikes would force the Jewish state to constantly keep its armed forces on alert, which would lead to great economic problems. This, in his opinion, should have forced the Israeli leadership to comply with the UN Security Council Resolution No. 242 on the withdrawal of Israeli troops from the occupied territories. However, Israel withstood the mobilization regime. At this time, Egypt, with the help of the USSR, was building a powerful air defense system, step by step bringing the C-75 and C-125 batteries to the Suez Canal, and Israel mercilessly bombed the enemy. Soviet air defense specialists took direct part in the hostilities, which inflicted heavy damage on the Israeli Air Force. As a result, a truce was concluded between Israel and Egypt on August 7.
After the end of the 1967 Six Day War and the establishment of Israeli control over the West Bank, a large number of Palestinian refugees settled in the Kingdom of Jordan, and the country became a rear base for the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). Also in Jordan, most of the radical groups of the Palestinian Arabs were founded. This caused the external and internal destabilization of Jordan: the conflict with Israel, attempts by the Palestinians to gain autonomy in the kingdom, which led to clashes between the Palestinians and the Jordanian security forces. In 1969, when, under the auspices of the United States, things were going to conclude a separate peace between Israel and Jordan, left-wing radical groups of Palestinians, worried about this prospect, which clearly did not provide for the creation of an independent Palestinian state, began military action against the Israelis. King Hussein's power swayed.
At the end of July 1970, Egypt and Jordan unexpectedly announced that they supported the American plan for the Middle East settlement (Rogers plan). This was the formal end of the "war of attrition." Left-wing Palestinian organizations decided to ruin the plan. Palestinian radicals planned to overthrow the Jordanian King Hussein and create a new state entity on the "east bank of the Jordan River." As a result, September 1970 went down in history as "Black September". On September 1, 1970, Palestinian militants attempted to assassinate the king, which failed. At the same time, the militants carried out several aircraft hijackings. This has led to an increase in Palestinian outrage in the world. Hussein decided the time had come for a tough response.
On September 16, in the morning, Hussein announced the introduction of martial law, and in the evening the tanks of the 60th Armored Brigade entered Amman from all sides and, with the support of motorized infantry, began an assault on the camps and fortified positions of the Palestinians. The Palestinians offered stubborn resistance. Moreover, the Palestine Liberation Army (led by Yasser Arafat), the military wing of the PLO, was actively supported by Syria. A division of the Syrian army invaded Jordan, but it was stopped by Jordanian forces. In addition, Israel and the United States have expressed their readiness to support Jordan. Damascus withdrew the troops. The Palestinians did not survive without the support of the Syrians. Royal artillery and aircraft have consistently destroyed Palestinian camps in and around Amman. The army advanced on all Palestinian strongholds. The Palestinians agreed to a ceasefire.
Arafat and Hussein went to a summit of Arab leaders in Cairo. And there, on September 27, 1970, the recent victor, King Hussein, was forced to sign an agreement leaving the Palestinian militant organizations the right to operate in Jordan. It seemed that Arafat had won a complete diplomatic victory. However, on September 28, at the age of only 52, Egyptian President Nasser unexpectedly died. And in Syria, just two months later, there was a military coup. Syrian Defense Minister Hafez Assad became the country's president. For a while, the Syrians had no time for Jordan. Hussein got the opportunity to put pressure on the situation in his favor. Arafat realized that he had lost and signed an agreement with Hussein, which fully recognized the sovereignty of the Jordanian king. However, this agreement was not accepted by the left-wing radical groups, which continued to resist until the summer of 1971. Their defeat was complete. PLO militants led by Yasser Arafat and representatives of other groups were forced to flee to Lebanon. Tens of thousands of Palestinian refugees flooded into Lebanon.
Thus, Lebanon received a "gift" from Jordan - tens of thousands of refugees, among whom there was a radical core, armed and ready to take action. At the same time, Lebanon, unlike Jordan, did not have a strong army that could “calm down” the Palestinian militants. And within the country there was already a conflict between Christians and Muslims, a split into the Christian and Arab elites. The arrival of the "army" of Palestinian refugees has exacerbated the already existing internal conflict in Lebanon.
Lebanese Civil War
The status of Palestinian refugees in Lebanon was determined by the provisions of the Cairo agreement between the chairman of the PLO Executive Committee Y. Arafat and the commander-in-chief of the Lebanese army, General Bustani. The agreement was signed on November 3, 1969 with the mediation of Egypt and Syria and the active support of the League of Arab States (LAS). The Palestinians had the right in Lebanon to work, live and participate in the resistance movement, to take part in the Palestinian revolution while respecting the sovereignty and security of Lebanon. Lebanon has agreed to the presence of Palestinian armed groups in the refugee camps.
Palestinian militants in Lebanon acted like they did in Jordan. The PLO, with the active assistance of a number of Arab countries, turned southern Lebanon into a stronghold in its actions against Israel, an operational and training base for militants and a number of radical organizations. The area adjacent to the northern border of Israel was completely controlled by the PLO and even received the name "Fathland". From the territory of Lebanon, Palestinian militants began raiding into Israeli territory. In turn, Israel conducted military operations in the border areas of southern Lebanon even before the start of the Lebanese civil war.
As a result, the Palestinians created their own "state within a state" in Lebanon. Palestinian camps and settlements have become hotbeds of crime and terrorism. In 1973, the Palestinians won the right to have their own armed forces in Lebanon. Especially from the tyranny of the Palestinians suffered the population of southern Lebanon, where mainly Christians-Maronites and Muslims-Shiites lived. The aggressive actions of the Palestinian militants led to the complete destabilization of the country and finally split the country along religious lines. The Muslim elite of Lebanon decided to take advantage of the presence of a large number of Palestinian militants, mainly Sunni Muslims, to redistribute power in the country in their favor, limiting the rights of the Christian community. The Lebanese army was traditionally weak and could not defeat the Palestinian radicals, as happened in Jordan. Therefore, Christians took the path of organizing their own self-defense units (militia). They also formed their own armed groups in other religious communities and parties, both in solidarity with the Palestinians and in opposition to the Palestinian presence.
Thus, in the end, in 1975, a full-scale civil war broke out in the country. Lebanon is divided along political and confessional lines: right-wing Christians against left-wing Muslims, including the Palestinians.
